Research Topics: Research Proposal Purpose Of The Study

RESEARCH ON ABORTION

RESEARCH ON ABORTION   Statement of Purpose This study proposes to look into the complications that women experienced after undergoing surgical abortion under the guidance of medical professionals. It will examine their post-abortion experiences and complications. Specifically, the researchers will examine if these women experienced both medical and psychological complications. This study will focus on female American citizens all over the country who have had surgical abortions under the guidance of health care professionals.   Significance of the Study Statistics show that women in their reproductive years have high awareness about contraception yet their use of such was low, therefore there are many who resort to induced abortion as an option for birth control without regard of the complications that occur as a result of the procedure. For this reason, the researcher wants to study on the complications and the level of complications that occur after undergoing abortion, specifically the type of abortion is surgical. Not to be included are women who underwent abortion without the assistance of medical professionals, women who had medical abortions, and women have had spontaneous abortions. Determining the levels of induced abortion and post abortion complications in various states is essential because of the consequences these experiences have for women’s health.   Operational Definitions Bronchoconstriction – is the constriction of the airways in the lungs due to the tighting of surrounding smooth muscle, with consequent coughing, wheezing, and shortness of breath. Coagulopathy – term for a defect in the body’s mechanism for blood clotting. Induced abortion – the termination of pregnancy by doing something to it, it could be performed by medical professionals, and at extremes, can be self-induced. Medical abortion – induced abortion with a regimen of mifepristone followed by a prostaglandin analogue. Spontaneous abortions – also called miscarriage; loss of a fetus during pregnancy due to natural causes. Surgical abortion – induced abortion with the use of surgical equipments and procedures. Therapeutic abortion – induced abortion that is performed when the pregnancy is presenting serious complications to the mother’s health. Thrombophlebitis – a blood clot (thrombus) inside an inflamed vein. Uterine synechiae – an adhesion, or a fibrous scar in the uterine cavity, also referred to as “amniotic sheets” or “amniotic folds.”   Review of the Literature               In developing countries each year more than half a million women die from maternal causes. Nearly all of these deaths could be prevented. Efforts to prevent maternal deaths from one major cause — complications of unsafe abortion — are crucial but inadequate in most of the world. As many as 53 million pregnancies are estimated to be terminated by induced abortion each year worldwide (Nnatu, 2002). Providing appropriate medical care immediately could save many thousands of women’s lives. Offering family planning could prevent many future unintended pregnancies and unsafe abortions (1997).             Unsafe abortion is fraught with many complications, including pelvic sepsis, septicemia, hemorrhage, renal failure, uterine perforation and other genital tract injuries, gastro-intestinal tract injuries. Where emergency expert treatment for these is not available, death will result ( 2002). But even if abortions are performed under the guidance of health care professionals – be it medical or surgical abortion, there are still slim chances of the woman undergoing abortion to have complications. No matter how safe the procedure is, there are no guarantees that there will be no complications for the mother afterwards. One study focused on women’s responses to abortion over an extended time. The findings of the study show that abortion(s) was/were not a time-limited event; instead thoughts, emotions, and insights about the meaning of these experiences were on-going in the part of the women, as life events unfolded. Difficulties with subsequent pregnancies, life milestones, and mundane occurrences involving friends’ children were common triggers for recurring thoughts about past abortions. These recurrent thoughts had characteristics of avoidance or suppression and intrusion (2006). Women are classified as having complications if they had any of the following events: failed medical abortion, bleeding requiting transfusion, infection requiring intravenous antibiotics, retained products of conception requiring dilation and curettage, organ injury requiring additional surgery, cervical laceration requiring repair and hospital readmission (2003). The five main causes of maternal mortality are summarized as hemorrhage, obstructed labor, infection, pregnancy-induced hypertension, and complications of unsafe abortion. Many countries are undertaking programs to reduce deaths from the other four causes, but few provide adequate emergency medical care that would reduce maternal deaths from abortion complications. Even fewer provide family planning services and counseling to women treated for abortion complications (1997).   The Research Question This research was designed to gather and analyze data in an attempt to answer the main question: What are the kinds of abortion complications that women experienced after induced abortion? Furthermore, this study will also examine if these complications experienced are solely medical in nature or also psychological.   Methodology   Sample             Respondents of the study will be selected through non-probability purposive sampling from a list of women who have undergone abortion in recognized hospitals and clinics throughout the country. The kind of abortion these women went could both be induced for therapeutic reasons or otherwise, as long as it is performed under the supervision of a health care professional. Basically, these women will be those who have undergone surgical abortions only, not medical abortions. These surgical abortions should have been performed between the years 2000 to 2005. A total of 50 women will be selected all over the country. The age range of the respondents will be from 20 to 40 years old, regardless of educational attainment, occupation, socio-economic status, religious affiliation, and marital status.   Procedures for Data Collection             After making the questions, the researchers conducted a pre-testing at a local hospital. Prior to the testing, the following steps were followed: <li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%"> A sample of the questionnaire was presented to the adviser for approval.</li> <li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%"> A letter of communication was sent to the chief of the local hospital.</li> <li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%"> The researchers introduced themselves and gave adequate explanation of the main objectives of the pre-testing.</li> <li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%"> Advises were solicited from the health care professionals if the research is comprehensible enough by the actual respondents.</li> <li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%"> Revisions were made on the questionnaire.</li> <li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%"> The researchers selected all qualified respondents through non-probability purposive sampling.</li> Then, the researchers did the actual data collection following these steps: <li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%"> Formal letters were sent to appropriate individuals in the areas where the research will be conducted asking for permission to conduct a study involving the women who had undergone legal abortion.</li> <li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%"> After approval was granted, the researchers introduced themselves to the respondents. </li> <li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%"> The purpose of the study was explained in general terms.</li> <li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%"> Assurance was given on anonymity upon the actual data collection.</li> <li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%"> During the data collection, the respondents were asked to answer a 30- item set of questions written in English about complications they encountered during and after the procedure of abortion.</li> <li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%"> After the collection of data, the researchers expressed their gratitude for the respondents’ answers.</li>       Study Design             In studying the experiences of complications of these women who have undergone induced abortion, the researchers used qualitative study utilizing questionnaires. This research design is best suited because this study does not talk about the cause-and-effect on complications of abortion. The researchers used a questionnaire (with simple/dichotomous items and multiple choices) in obtaining the information relevant to this study. In a questionnaire using closed-ended questions, the investigator offered two alternative replies of true or false from which the subjects chose the one that matched the appropriate answer. In administering the tool, respondents gathered self-reported information through self-administration of questions in a paper-pencil format. A follow-up interview was done.             This method is useful in collecting data for this study for the following reasons: (1) subjects were asked to respond to the same set of questions, in the same order, (2) they had the same set of options for their responses, (3) it is economical.   Data Analysis             Data gathered from the questionnaires will be tabulated and applied statistical treatment. A constant comparative method of analysis was used. The analysis was conducted as the data was obtained. The information gathered was coded and the data constructed into categories or themes by analyzing information in relation to the research questions. Profiles and brief essays of the participants’ experiences were also created from the results obtained in the study.   Results and Conclusions               Results of the study show that immediate complications of abortion include uterine perforations, hemorrhage and surgical lacerations. Hypertonic saline instillation may cause consumption coagulopathy with severe hemorrhage, as well as adverse Central Nervous System effects. Complications of prostaglandin instillation include hypertension, tachycardia, bronchoconstriction, nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea, slowly healing cervical-vaginal fistulas may also develop.             In all therapeutic abortions, respondents mentioned that a part of the placenta may be retained, causing bleeding problems, infection, and thrombophlebitis. Some of the respondents answered that there may sometimes be late complications from the procedure. Late complications may include a possible increased incidence of premature labor in subsequent pregnancies, sensitization of Rh-negative mothers, and possibly an increased incidence of sterility, especially in patients who become infected and possibly in other who develop uterine synechiae.             When the respondents are asked of any psychologic problems after the procedure, most of them answered there are no psychologic problems at all. Which gives the researchers the conclusion that the psychologic problems associated with abortion are somewhat obscured today. Before induced abortions are easily and openly obtainable, it was thought that women had an induced abortion would feel extremely guilty and experience attendant psychologic difficulties. However, today it is evident that psychologic problems are fewer or more subtle than was anticipated, and women who have induced abortions appear to be remarkably free of psychologic difficulties.             The levels of these complications that occur in abortions performed under the supervision of health care professionals are compounded when performed under unsafe conditions without guidance of health care professionals.   Generalizations The goal of this survey research is to offer generalizations about the larger population using the information collected from the sample. It is of paramount importance to ensure that the sample is representative of the population at large, in this case women who have undergone therapeutic abortions. The sample of women involved in this study is believed to be representational of all the women who have undergone therapeutic abortion nation wide. It is therefore assumed that the results of the survey would be very similar when conducted within a larger survey population.   Implications             By knowing what complications can occur in women after undergoing abortions, individuals and groups can provide appropriate medical care and services immediately which could save many thousands of women’s lives, not only in the United States but throughout the world.   Limitations The main limitation of this study is primarily that these complications that are gathered in the study are those that are experienced only by women who have undergone safe abortions performed by medical professionals. It does not mirror the complications that were experienced by women who have undergone unsafe abortions. Furthermore, these complications are also focused only to those women who have undergone surgical abortions, not medical abortions. Suggestions for Future Research             While the survey may provide a significant amount of information concerning the complications of women who underwent abortion experienced, it is limited in scope. Further research could be done on women who had unsafe abortions and the level of complications could be compared between the two groups.             Credit:ivythesis.typepad.com

RESEARCH ON ABORTION

RESEARCH ON ABORTION Statement of Purpose This study proposes to look into the complications that women experienced after undergoin...

Interfaith Dialog Research Objectives

Ideally, it can be that, “Interfaith Dialog” does refer to cooperative as well as positive interaction among individuals composed of various religious tradition as well as spiritual beliefs with an aim of deriving common ground in belief through such concentration on similarities between faiths, the understanding of values and commitment to the world. Thus, this type of dialog often involves promotion of awareness and understanding of diverse religions in order to increase acceptance for others rather than to synthesize new beliefs. The research can impose the following research objectives:   Research Objectives <li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph; line-height: 200%"> To be able to determine how a particular person or a group can possibly be mandated by such religious institution to amicably take part to such interfaith activities that may affect the institution’s set of norms thus, knowing what really counts for the term “religion” and to know who should decide for the process?</li> <li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph; line-height: 200%">  To be able to realize and understand if, certain “Interfaith Dialog” is possible when people think other religions are inferior and vice versa</li> <li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph; line-height: 200%"> To inculcate truth and value within interfaith dialog as it does not only mean interaction but also listening and respecting  such unique vision of other faiths</li> Credit:ivythesis.typepad.com

Interfaith Dialog Research Objectives

Ideally, it can be that, “Interfaith Dialog” does refer to cooperative as well as positive interaction among individuals composed of ...

Research Proposal on Relationship of Poor Education and Understanding of Most Women to Heart Attack Causes

Relationship of Poor Education and Understanding of Most Women to Heart Attack Causes   This paper discusses in detail the research proposal on the reasons and proofs on why more women die in heart attacks. In particular, the research will focus on the questions: “What are the related factors affecting the massive death of women in relation to their education and understanding?” In this research proposal, the background, context and theme of the study are presented; the objectives of the study and the research statements are formulated. Here, vital concepts, questions and assumptions are stated. Finally, the scope and limitation of the study, methodology to be used and the significance of the research are discussed. Further, this paper briefly reviews related literature. PROBLEM TO BE INVESTIGATED Purpose of the Study Generally, the purpose of the research is to conduct an experimental study to determine the relationship of poor education and causes of heart attacks of women.  The research will specifically identify the different factors related to the causes of heart attacks in most women. The research will also conduct a phenomenological method of open-ended interviews with subsequent thematic analysis of the transcripts from which the researcher could get information for an educational program. Moreover, this proposed study would review relevant literature on the same topic.  Based on the preliminary review of literature, the researcher assumed that there is a relationship between poor education and causes of heart attacks in most women.    Research Question and Null Hypothesis The focus of this problem statement is to establish and determine the impact of poor education and understanding of women to the causes of heart attacks. Currently, there are no studies that provide a definitive answer regarding the negative and positive influence of poor education to the causes of heart attacks to most women. The researcher is hopeful that the proposed research will yield a significant result in terms of both positive and negative impact of poor education to the health of women. Thus, the study will work on the following hypothesis: “There is a significant relationship between poor education and understanding of women and causes of heart attacks” This study will attempt to answer the following questions: 1.                  What are the related factors affecting to the death of most women in connection to heart attacks and poor education? 2.                  What is the degree of impact of poor education and understanding of women to the causes of heart attack? 3.                  What is the degree of relationship of the causes of heart attack and poor education of women? 4.                  What are the possible steps and procedures to minimize the massive death of women due to heart attacks in connection to education? Definition of Terms   Brief Overview of the Study             The proposed study will attempt to prove that there is a significant relationship between poor education and understanding of most women to heart attack causes. The researcher will use Orem’s health belief to provide health model.  The population sample would be women who have had a myocardial infarction and are able to identify areas that need to be addressed in the study.  Women could be recruited from local hospital ER. The sample size could be 300 or more subjects till the researcher get some conclusions to the phenomenological study. The study will be divided into five sections. The first section will introduce the topic and the background and nature of the problem. The second section will present a review of literature. The third section will discuss the methodologies that will be used for the study. The forth chapter will be presenting the results and findings. And the final section will present the conclusion.   BACKGROUND AND REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE             A heart attack is a colloquial term referring to a serious, sudden heart condition that presents as varying degrees of chest pain, weakness, sweating, nausea and vomiting, sometimes causing loss of consciousness. A heart attack is a medical emergency. (U.S. Department of Health and Human Services)             The medical term for a heart attack is acute myocardial infarction, often abbreviated as AMI or MI. “Acute” means sudden, “myo” refers to muscle, and “cardium” refers to the heart, i.e. to the heart muscle (myocardium). “Infarction” is a medical term describing tissue death (necrosis) caused by an obstruction of blood flow. (U.S. Department of Health and Human Services) Diagnosis             U.S. Department of Health and Human Services cited that the classical symptom of a heart attack is chest pain. However it is present only in 65-69% of cases. Pain most characteristic of a heart attack is described as “intense pressure” (“like an elephant sitting on your chest”) but can also be a sharp or stabbing pain. The pain may radiate to the left arm, neck or the back and can be slight, moderate, or severe. Some associated symptoms include dizziness, nausea, shortness of breath and diaphoresis (excessive sweating). In the absence of these symptoms, sharp chest pain which goes away promptly when the patient stops moving chest and arm muscles often is not associated with a heart attack; but a sharp chest pain that persists despite lack of movement is a strong indicator of a heart attack. Heart attacks sometimes occur with atypical pain or in the absence of classical symptoms, particularly in women, who may experience simply chest discomfort, a sensation of uncomfortable chest pressure, cold sweats, nausea, or pain in the arm, back, jaw, or stomach (so called anginal equivalents). Women are just as likely to die of a heart attack as men.   The Disease Process             Despite a dramatic decline in the death rate for coronary heart disease (CHD) over the past three decades, it continues to be the leading cause of death and major cause of disability in the United States. Each year, over 14 million Americans will be diagnosed with coronary heart disease, including over 7 million who experienced a myocardial infarction and over 6 million with angina pectoris. (American Heart Association. Biostatistical Fact Sheets. 2000)             Certain segments of the population are disproportionately affected by CHD, including individuals living in Kentucky and most of its contiguous states. Recent estimates from the American Heart Association indicate that only three other states in the nation have a CHD mortality rate higher than that of Kentucky. Compared with national CHD-related mortality rates of 89.5/100,000, Kentucky sustained a CHD mortality rate of 113.5/ 100,000, about 27 percent higher than the national level. (American Heart Association. Heart and Stroke Statistical Update, 1998)             Because of this disproportionate burden from CHD, researchers in this region have created a nickname descriptive of the region’s vulnerability to CHD. Similar to the “stroke belt” of the southern states, scientists have labeled Kentucky and neighboring states “Coronary Valley.” While researchers have paid little attention to this clustering of CHD and minimal empirical evidence exists about factors that account for Coronary Valley, understanding lay perspectives on CHD risk factors may provide insights into this high prevalence of CHD and may guide prevention efforts.             The association between health knowledge and behaviors makes intuitive sense–knowing the potential of health risks involved in certain activities may influence that individual to avoid such risks in favor of other activities that are viewed as neutral or favorable to one’s health. While scholars continue to debate the relative influence of health knowledge on preventive health behavior, much of the existing literature has demonstrated some association between knowledge and behavior. (Wardle J, Steptoe, A, Bellisle, F, Davou, B., 1997) For example, to understand the association between knowledge of disease risk factors and exercise behaviors, Steptoe and colleagues (Wardle, J, Fuller R, Holte, A, Justo, J, Sanderman, R, Wichstrom, L.,1997) interviewed over 16,000 young adults in the European Health and Behaviour Study. Their results revealed an association between the beliefs in the benefits of exercise for preventing heart disease and participating in exercise itself. Similarly, in a study of older adults, (Ferrini R, Edelstein S, Barret-Connor E,1997) found that those who agreed that diet and exercise were important for optimal health were significantly more likely to engage in behavior change than those expressing confusion about health risks and benefits.             Research on the relationship between cardiovascular disease risk factors and health behavior often has confirmed the connection between health knowledge and behavior. (Mirotznik J, Speedling E, Stein R, Bronz C.,1985 , Popay J, Williams G., 1996 and Mirotznik J, Feldman L, Stein R.,1995) The preponderance of this research suggests that while far from the only predictor of health behavior, in the absence of certain health knowledge, behavioral change is unlikely (Kelly RB, Zyzanski S, Alemagno SA.,1991 and Avis NE, McKinlay JB, Smith KW.,1990). Therefore, a starting point for prevention and intervention programs, particularly those populations experiencing epidemics, is to illuminate lay explanations of disease risk factors. Determining lay perspectives of CHD has the potential to: American Heart Association. Biostatistical Fact Sheets. 2000 reveal knowledge deficits that have been linked to suboptimal health behavior and (American Heart Association. Heart and Stroke Statistical Update,1998) identify risk factors described by lay individuals that often fall outside of the purview of public health and health care professionals. Once identified, such knowledge deficits may be addressed through specific and appropriate prevention efforts. Thus, the aim of this article is to reveal Kentuckians’ explanations about factors that might account for the elevated risk of CHD in their region.    PROCEDURES Description of the Research Design There are three kinds of research methods, correlational, experimental and descriptive. (Walliman and Baiche, 2001) The correlational kind of research method is used due to ethical problems with experiments. It is also used due to practical problems with experiments. Moreover, inferring causality from correlation not actually impossible, but very difficult. This mode of study is widely applicable, cheap, and usually ethical. Nonetheless, there exist some “third variable” issues and measurement problems.             The correlational research refers to studies in which the purpose is to discover relationships between variables through the use of correlational statistics (r). The square of a correlation coefficient yields the explained variance (r-squared). A correlational relationship between two variables is occasionally the result of an outside source, so we have to be careful and remember that correlation does not necessarily tell us about cause and effect. If a strong relationship is found between two variables, using an experimental approach can test causality. In the descriptive method, it is possible that the study will be cheap and quick. It can also suggest unanticipated hypotheses. Nonetheless, this method will be very hard to rule out alternative explanations and especially infer causations. This descriptive type of research utilizes observations in the study.  To illustrate the descriptive type of research, Creswell (1994) states that the descriptive method of research is to gather information about the present existing condition.  In this study, the experimental method will be used; it is the only method that can be used to establish cause-and-effect relationships (Creswell, 1994). That is, it is the only one that can be used to explain the bases of behaviour and mental processes. In this method, the subjects are split into two (or more) groups. One group, called the experimental group gets the treatment that the researcher believes will cause something to happen (this treatment is formally called the independent variable). The experimental and control groups are compared on some variable that is presumed to reflect the effects of the treatment, or outcome. This is formally referred to as the dependent variable. To come up with pertinent findings and to provide credible recommendations, this study will utilize two sources of research: primary and secondary.  Primary research data will be obtained through this new research study. The secondary research data will be obtained from previous studies on the same topic.  This research will base its findings partially through quantitative research methods because this permits a flexible and iterative approach. During data gathering the choice and design of methods will be constantly modified, based on ongoing analysis. This will allow investigation of important new issues about single parenting and questions as they arise, and allow the researcher to drop unproductive areas of research from the original research plan.             This study will also employ qualitative research method because it intends to find and build theories that will explain the relationship of one variable with another variable through qualitative elements in research. Through this method, qualitative elements that do not have standard measures such as behavior, attitudes, opinions, and beliefs will be analyzed.  Furthermore qualitative research is multimethod in focus, involving an interpretative, naturalistic approach to its subject matter. This means that qualitative researchers study things in their natural settings, attempting to make sense of, or interpret phenomena in terms of the meanings people bring to them. Accordingly, qualitative researchers deploy a wide range of interconnected methods, hoping always to get a better fix on the subject matter at hand. For this research design, the researcher will gather data, collate published studies from different local and foreign universities and articles from books and journals; and will make a content analysis of the collected documentary and verbal material. Afterwards, the researcher will summarize all the information and make a conclusion based on the hypotheses posited. Description of the Sample   The population for this study will be investors, business organization leaders and consumers. Samples will compose of 30 Christians who have served more than 5 years at their church.  Stratified random sampling from Christian community will be used to ensure a sample representative of all socioeconomic levels in the community. Ten (10) samples will be randomly selected from each different organization/ministry.   Description of the Instruments           To determine what perception of the respondents pertaining the impact of losing respect to the office of the pastorate, the researcher will prepare a questionnaire and a set of guide questions for the interview that will be asked to the intended respondents. Questionnaires will be of a non-threatening nature that can be completed within 30 minutes. The respondents will grade each statement in the survey-questionnaire using a Likert scale with a five-response scale wherein respondents will be given five response choices. The equivalent weights for the answers will be:   Range                                                            Interpretation       4.50 – 5.00                                        Strongly Agree 3.50 – 4.00                                        Agree 2.50 – 3.49                                        Uncertain 1.50 – 2.49                                        Disagree          0.00 – 1.49                                        Strongly Disagree   Moreover, the researcher will also conduct interview with the respondents. The interview shall be using a semi-structured interview. It shall consist of a list of specific questions and the interviewer, at times, does deviate from the list or inject any extra remarks into the interview process. The interviewer may encourage the interviewee to clarify vague statements or to further elaborate on brief comments. Otherwise, the interviewer attempts to be objective and tries not to influence the interviewer’s statements. The interviewer does not share his/her own beliefs and opinions. The structured interview is mostly a “question and answer” session. For validation purposes, the researcher will initially submit a sample of the set of survey questionnaires and after approval; the survey will be conducted to five respondents.  After the questions were answered, the researcher will ask the respondents for any suggestions or any necessary corrections to ensure further improvement and validity of the instrument.  The researcher will again examine the content of the interview questions to find out the reliability of the instrument.  The researchers will exclude irrelevant questions and will change words that would be deemed difficult by the respondents, too much simpler terms. The researcher will exclude the five respondents who will be initially used for the validation of the instrument.  Explanation of Procedures The project procedure will be broken down into five key stages; problem definition, research design, data collection, analysis of results and presentation findings and recommendations.  The project owner develops the original idea for the research project.  The idea is discussed with the supervisor and other students. The project supervisor then provided guidance on developing the hypotheses and key reference material that would be needed for the project. After the approval of this research proposal, the researcher will review literature pertaining to the topic. Afterwards, significant issues and problems will be identified. The researcher will then start determining the population for the study, following the sampling. For this study, the researcher will focus on the causes of heart attacks and poor education of women. The researcher will ask the consent of the doctors, health professionals, women and even men. They will be ensured that their response to the survey and interview will be handled with high confidentiality. The procedures in data gathering will cover three months. The researcher will collate, tally and tabulate the results. A preliminary analysis will be done before submitting the final draft to the supervisor.  Discussion of External Validity             The researcher will attempt to make the sample as representative to the population as possible. The population will be doctors, health professionals, women and men. The study will only cover the city/state of ____. Different organizations will be selected through stratified random sampling so as to have a representative sample in relation to socioeconomic backgrounds. In each organization, ten respondents will be selected through a systematic random sampling. Discussion of Internal Validity             The researcher will make sure to rule out any threats to the internal validity of the study. The researcher will consider events that occur during the course of the program that might impact the final outcome. In the testing part, the researcher will make sure that the content of the testing instrument used in pretest does not duplicate the posttest. Instead, the researcher will make the content of the posttest reflective of the pretest. Moreover, the researcher is hoping that participants will not drop out from the program. In presenting the findings of the study, the researcher will ask the help of a statistician in interpreting the results of survey and tests. References: American Heart Association. Biostatistical Fact Sheets. 2000. Available from:       URL:  http://www. americanheart.org/statistics/biostats/index.html   American Heart Association (1998). Heart and Stroke Statistical Update. Dallas,   TX: Avis NE, McKinlay JB, Smith KW. (1990) Is cardiovascular risk factor knowledge             sufficient to influence behavior? Am J Prey Med; 6:137-44. Creswell, J.W. (1994) Research design. Qualitative and quantitative approaches. Thousand Oaks, California: Sage.   Ferrini R, Edelstein S, Barret-Connor E. (1994) The association between health beliefs and health behavior change in older adults. Prev Med; 23:1-5.   Kelly RB, Zyzanski S, Alemagno SA. (1991) Prediction of motivation and behavior change following health promotion: Role of health beliefs, social            support, and self-efficacy. Soc Sci Med ; 32: 311-20.   Mirotznik J, Feldman L, Stein R. (1995) The health belief model and adherence with a             community center-based supervised coronary heart disease             exercise program. J Community Health; 20: 233-47.   Mirotznik J, Speedling E, Stein R, Bronz C.(1985),Cardiovascular fitness   programs: Factors associated with participation and adherence. Public            Health Report; 100:13-18.   Popay J, Williams G.(1996) Public health research and lay knowledge. Soc Sci   Med ; 45:759-68.   Steptoe, A, Wardle, J, Fuller R, Holte, A, Justo, J, Sanderman, R, Wichstrom, L.   (1997) Leisure time physical exercise: Prevalence, attitudinal correlates,   and behavioral correlates among Europeans from 21 countries. Prev    Med ; 26: 845-854.   U.S. Department of Health and Human Services   Walliman, Nicholas and Bousmaha Baiche. (2001) Your research project. SAGE Publications   Wardle J, Steptoe, A, Bellisle, F, Davou, B. (1997) Health dietary practices             among European students. Health Psych; 16: 443-450.       Credit:ivythesis.typepad.com

Research Proposal on Relationship of Poor Education and Understanding of Most Women to Heart Attack Causes

Relationship of Poor Education and Understanding of Most Women to Heart Attack Causes This paper discusses in detail the research propos...

Research Proposal on Racial Minorities’ Perception on Racism in the US Criminal Justice System

Racial Minorities’ Perception on Racism in the US Criminal Justice System   INTRODUCTION This paper discusses in detail the research proposal on racist acts within the United States’ criminal justice system. Specifically, the research will focus on how race affects the sentencing process of criminal justice. In this research proposal, the problem, context and theme of the study are presented; the objectives of the study and the research statements are formulated. Here, vital concepts, questions and assumptions are stated. The proposal also provides a brief review of literature related to the topic. Finally, the scope and limitation of the study, methodology to be used and the significance of the research are discussed. Racism was once blatant in the US. Slavery, lynching and the slaughter of Native Americans were all highly visible manifestations of racism committed with the sanction or even active participation of the authorities. Although overt manifestations of racism today would be unacceptable to the majority of US citizens, the country is still struggling with ongoing racial and ethnic divisions. Major steps taken over the past 50 years to end institutionalized racism have not eliminated the inequalities which many members of racial minorities continue to face in daily life. The impetus for undertaking this study stems from the author’s belief that racism is still blatant in the US, especially in the criminal justice system. The author has observed and gathered data pertaining to racist sentencing process. Thus, the author finds it necessary to examine and investigate how racism affects the sentencing process of criminal justice. Purpose of the Study Generally, the purpose of the research is to conduct a descriptive study on the biased processes within the US criminal justice system, specifically on sentencing. Specifically, the study will attempt to determine the perception of racial minorities on the US justice system in terms of biased sentencing. The proposed study will furnish discussions made by other authors regarding racism in American criminal justice system. The predominant contention of the authors in the literature has been fundamentally inclined negatively towards the system; that racism is still blatant in the US. Statement of the Problem The focus of this problem statement is to analyze the sentencing process of the US criminal justice. Literature shows that it is biased against black people and other racial minorities. For the purpose of this study, the researcher shall test the validity of the null hypothesis, “Racial minorities, especially black people, feel that the police and the courts favor white people and are biased against them.”   Objectives of the Study The general objectives of this study are: 1.         To examine the US criminal justice system in relation to racism. 2.       To identify the factors that affect the sentencing of racial minorities. LITERATURE REVIEW Perception on Inequality The black-white divide on racial matters is one of the most profound and enduring in American society. For decades, public opinion polls have shown that blacks and whites differ fundamentally as to what constitutes the race problem, how severe it is, and what to do about it. Thus Sigelman and Susan Welch (1991) write: “It is hardly an overstatement to say that blacks and whites inhabit two different perceptual worlds” (65). And Bositis (1997), summarizing the findings of the Joint Center for Political and Economic Studies 1997 National Opinion Poll, goes so far as to speak of a “white reality” versus a “black reality.” Kim (2002) argues that blacks and whites are not diametrically opposed on all race-related issues, and each community of opinion is far from internally monolithic. Blacks and whites disagree about whether or not blacks currently enjoy equality of opportunity or equal treatment with whites in local communities. The result of the 1997 Gallup Poll shows that whites are much more likely than blacks to think that blacks enjoy equality of opportunity in every one of these areas of life (Gallup News Service, 2000). For nearly forty years, a large majority of whites has believed that blacks receive equal treatment with whites in their local communities, while a large majority of blacks has disagreed (Ludwig, 2000). Relatedly, blacks and whites disagree about whether or not racial discrimination persists, to what extent, and to what effect (Kim, 2002). According to the 1997 Joint Center poll, a large majority of whites (76 percent) and blacks (92 percent) said they believed that discrimination against blacks remains common today (Fletcher & Balz, 1997). However, this agreement broke down somewhat regarding the extent of current discrimination, with 49 percent of blacks and 21 percent of whites saying they thought there was “a lot” of discrimination, and 50 percent of blacks and 76 percent of whites saying they thought there was only “some” discrimination (Fletcher & Balz, 1997). According to Kim (2002), it makes sense that blacks who deny that they have equality of opportunity with whites also perceive a high level of discrimination.   Racism in the US Criminal Justice System Racism within the justice system has been a prominent issue in American criminology for several decades. Many scholars have used both qualitative and quantitative data to document that the American criminal justice system is biased against black people and other racial minorities (Mann 1993; Georges-Abeyie 1984; McNeely and Pope 1981). However, other researchers maintain that the empirical evidence overwhelmingly suggests that the American criminal justice system does not systematically discriminate against the members of racial minority groups (Willbanks 1990; Willbanks 1987; Kleck 1985; Sowell 1984). While the debate continues to rage over the empirical evidence concerning racism in the American criminal justice system, the results regarding public perceptions of injustice are quite clear. In general, a large proportion of the racial minority population believe that the police and the courts discriminate against racial minorities, while most white Americans reject this charge. Indeed, several large American surveys have documented that racial minorities, especially black people, feel that the police and the courts favor white people and are biased against them (Hagan and Albonetti 1982; Meislin 1988; Kaplan 1988; New York State Judicial Commission 1991; California Judicial Council 1994). Therefore, as suggested by the review of the literature, there is a current need in the literature to address the issue of racism in the US criminal justice system while relying on the determining how racial minorities perceive the process in the system. Thus, the proposed study, will attempt to address this current need in the literature.       METHODOLOGY Research Approach For this study, descriptive research method will be utilized. In this method, it is possible that the study will be cheap and quick. It can also suggest unanticipated hypotheses. Nonetheless, this method will be very hard to rule out alternative explanations and especially infer causations. This descriptive type of research utilizes observations in the study.  To illustrate the descriptive type of research, Creswell (1994) states that the descriptive method of research is to gather information about the present existing condition.  The purpose of employing this method is to describe the nature of a situation, as it exists at the time of the study and to explore the cause/s of particular phenomena. The researcher opts to use this kind of research considering the desire of the researcher to obtain first hand data from the respondents so as to formulate rational and sound conclusions and recommendations for the study. To come up with pertinent findings and to provide credible recommendations, this study utilizes two sources of research: primary and secondary.  Primary research data will obtained through this new research study. Questionnaire survey and in-depth interview will be conducted. On the other hand, the secondary research data will be obtained from previous studies on the same topic.  This research will base its findings fundamentally through qualitative research method because it intends to find and build theories that will explain the relationship of one variable with another variable through qualitative elements in research. Through this method, qualitative elements that do not have standard measures such as behavior, attitudes, opinions, and beliefs within the US criminal justice system.  Furthermore qualitative research is multimethod in focus, involving an interpretative, naturalistic approach to its subject matter. This means that qualitative researchers study things in their natural settings, attempting to make sense of, or interpret phenomena in terms of the meanings people bring to them. Accordingly, qualitative researchers deploy a wide range of interconnected methods, hoping always to get a better fix on the subject matter at hand.   Data Collection Method For this research design, the researcher will gather data, collate published studies from different local and foreign universities and articles from books and journals; and will make a content analysis of the collected documentary and verbal material. Afterwards, the researcher will summarize all the information, make a conclusion based on the hypotheses posited and provide insightful recommendations on employee training. For this study, a survey and interview will be conducted. The process will include identifying the general population for the survey, designing of the instrument (survey-questionnaire) and validation of the instrument. After the validation, the researcher will present the instrument to the supervisor for approval, before administering the instrument. Finally, with the help of a statistician, the researcher will make the statistical analysis. After gathering the results, a preliminary analysis of the results of the survey and interview will be conducted. Then the supervisor will check the preliminary analysis. Afterwards, I will conduct detailed analysis of the results.   Subject of Study             The general population for this study will be composed of racial minorities (African-Americans, Hispanics and Asians). The researcher will make sure that the sample will be representative of the population. Due to the lack of time and resources, this study finds it unlikely to have a sample that is representative to all racial minorities in the US. Thus, the study will limit its population to racial minorities in New York City. The sample for this study will include 350 racial minorities in the same city. New York City was chosen because of it has a great concentration of racial minorities. The samples will be chosen through random sampling. As the study will tackle a sensitive topic, the researcher will ensure that the information that will be given by the subjects will be regarded with high confidentiality. Measurements The data collection instrument will be a structured questionnaire that would be based on Likert scale. A Likert Scale is a rating scale that requires the subject to indicate his or her degree of agreement or disagreement with a statement. By rating scale we mean the scales that are usually used to measure attitudes towards an object, the degree to which an object contains a particular attribute, (Like or dislike), toward some attribute, or the importance attached to an attribute. The equivalent weights for the answers would be:     Range                                    Interpretation       4.50 – 5.00                            Strongly Agree       3.50 – 4.00                Agree 2.50 – 3.49                            Uncertain 1.50 – 2.49                            Disagree          0.00 – 1.49                            Strongly Disagree   The use of the questionnaire would provide the project owner the ability to test the views and attitudes of the respondents. The distribution and collation methods used to manage the questionnaire process would ensure anonymity. For validation purposes, the researcher will initially submit a sample of the set of survey questionnaires for approval; the survey will be initially conducted to five respondents.  After the questions are answered, the researcher will ask the respondents for any suggestions or any necessary corrections to ensure further improvement and validity of the instrument.  The researcher will again examine the content of the survey questions/statements to find out the reliability of the instrument. Afterwards, the researchers will exclude irrelevant questions and changed words that would be deemed difficult by the respondents, to much simpler terms.  The researcher will exclude the five respondents who will be initially used for the validation of the instrument. The researcher will then tally, score and tabulate all the responses in the provided questionnaire. For the interview part, open-ended questions will be used to obtain as much information as possible about how the interviewee feels about the research topic. Interviews took a maximum of 30 minutes. The questions that will be used during the interview will be based on the research questions for this project. The researcher will make sure that they will be reviewed, refined and approved by the project supervisor. The researcher will design a semi-structured interview. Here, the researcher will encourage the interviewee to clarify vague statements and to further elaborate on brief comments. The interviewer will not share his own beliefs and opinions.   Design/Analysis When the entire survey questionnaires are collected, the researcher will use statistics to analyse all the data. The researcher will be assisted by the SPSS in coming up with the statistical analysis for this study. The findings of the study may affect the current body of knowledge, as there are very few studies that are dealing with racial minorities’ perception on racism in the US criminal justice system. The researcher is hopeful that this study will potentially affect policies in the system. References Bositis, D. (2000) Summary of Findings, Joint Center for Political and Economic Studies 1997 National Opinion Poll–Race Relations Available at [http://www.jointctr.org/selpaper/poll_ra.htm]. Accessed 19/11/03].   California Judicial Council (1994) Fairness in the California State Courts. In “A Survey of the Public, Attorney and Court Personnel”. Advisory Committee on Racial and Ethnic Bias in the Courts.   Fletcher, M. and Balz, D. (1997) Race Relations Initiative May Post Risks for Clinton, Washington Post, 12 June.   Gallup News Service, Social Audit (2000) Black/White Relations in the U.S. Available at [http://www.gallup.com/poll/socialaudits/sa970610.asp]. Accessed [19/11/03].   Georges-Abeyie, D. (1984) The Criminal Justice System and Blacks. New York: Clark Broardman.   Hagan, J. and Albonetti, C. (1982) Race, class, and the perception of criminal injustice in America. American Journal of Sociology.   Kaplan, L. (1988) Brawley charges fictitious? Law journal poll in city on criminal justice system. New York Law Journal May 24: 1-4.   Kim, C. J. (2002) Managing the racial breach: Clinton, black-white polarization, and the race initiative. Political Science Quarterly, Vol. 117.   Kleck, G. (1985) Life support for ailing hypotheses: Modes of summarizing the evidence for racial discrimination in sentencing. Law and Human Behaviour 9(3):271-258.   Ludwig, J. (2000) Perceptions of Black and White Americans Continue to Diverge Widely on Issues of Race Relations in the U.S. Gallup News Service, Poll Releases. Available at [http://www.gallup.com/poll/releases/pr000228.asp]. Acessed [19/11/03].   Mann, C. R. (1993) Unequal Justice: A Question of Color. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.   McNeely, R. and Pope, C. E (1981) Race, Crime, and Criminal Justice. Beverly Hills: Sage Publications.   Meislin, J. (1988) New Yorkers say race relations have worsened in the last year. New York Times. January 19:A1.   New York State Judicial Commission (1991) The Public and the Courts: Volume Two. New York City: New York State Judicial Commission on Minorities.   Sigelman, L and Welch, S. (1991) Black Americans’ Views of Racial Inequality: The Dream Deferred. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 65.   Willbanks, W. (1987) The Myth of a Racist Criminal Justice System. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Inc.                                           Credit:ivythesis.typepad.com

Research Proposal on Racial Minorities’ Perception on Racism in the US Criminal Justice System

Racial Minorities’ Perception on Racism in the US Criminal Justice System INTRODUCTION This paper discusses in detail the research p...