The post-world war years set the perfect condition for the world to eradicate every form of discrimination across races, colors, languages, disabilities and sexes. But then, the very same world heroes who fought against Nazi, anti-black American whites and foreign conquerors seemed unsupported and neglected in their ideals and sacrifices by the contemporary inhabitants whom they saved from cruelties of inequality. Aggravatingly, the latter even leaned to exercise the evils of the past menace partly mutating from the previous racial and national scope of discrimination and presently concentrating in a specific niche— the industrial setting.
In the United Kingdom, Statistics 1995 show that only one-third of managerial and administrative positions are occupied by females even though this gender occupies forty percent (40%) managerial and supervisory positions of the country’s (1996 ). In the same manner, females also receive relatively lower wages for the same amount of work and position against male counterparts (2002). Undoubtedly, horizontal (within a certain positional level in an industry) and vertical (across different industries) segregation are eminent in the country. If not addressed by concerned authorities, gender discrimination may not only result to economic inefficiency at household level but more importantly, cause adverse effects to society at large. In the following discussion, we will try to identify theoretical explanations of fewer women in senior management roles and evaluate to what extent policies for equal opportunities can improve the situation.
Theoretical Explanation of Women Subordination
Even though the trend is increasing for woman labor which accounted for 49.5% of United Kingdom’s workforce, (1997) argued women remained clustered at the bottom of job hierarchy vertically and horizontally segregated from men. In addition, facts suggested that women advance quickly in United States than United Kingdom ( 2000 ). Identifying the cause behind the subordination of women in the workplace can be inferred in a number of factors such as race, family status, marriage status, nature of work, age and other direct and indirect aspects. Should we discuss these one by one can consume so much time and effort, rather the overview of the two general theories of the phenomenon is sufficient. They can also give us inference of the resulting sub-theories that develop from them.
Patriarchal Theory
Perhaps the inherent root of women subordination in workplace, patriarchal theory argues the domination of the males establishes a sexual class system that expresses itself throughout social, political and economic aspects. (1970) explained that men dominion is said to be carried outside the home and into different institution of the society transforming industries into small homes where the father is the sole authority and highest decision-making body. The situation resulted men to vacate key positions in the corporate world that created discriminate environment against women that deter that latter’s managerial hopes in the face of men-driven recruitment process, sexual harassment and mentorship in the enterprise.
Informal recruitment process is commonly used by the companies despite the intention of personnel managers to introduce formality when it comes to hiring employees. According to studies (1990), line managers are the most popular opposition in the implementation of formal procedures because of the apprehension that efficiency in the department will be adversely affected. This informal set-up in recruitment produces the same pattern of personnel discriminatory appointments. It may likely driven by subjective factors attributable to the physical (like woman’s body) and other non-objective reasons (family friend) of the applicant which can undermine efficiency and performance at work.
Second, according to (1983), the recourse of men to sexual harassment indicates the subordinated labor market position of women. The research of (1992) showed that 59% of women experienced sexual harassment. This is a clear cut determinant of the existence of discrimination in the workplace. In the frustration of men to achieve its authority over women, it often uses several sexual harassment types from simple gestures to more cruel acts. Men consider this as retaliation whenever cases like women are ahead in organizational positions happened (1993). In some cases, common victims are young women with above average educational level that can justify the reluctance of them to pursue high ranks ( 2000). It is the choice of “get-along” or “get-out” whenever confronted by a male boss.
Lastly, the little opportunity of women to be nourished and guided by mentors aggravates their subordination. Mentors are said to be more than a teacher, manager or leader because it requires one-is-to-one approach. The student will look upon him and idolized his qualities and principles in life that later he realize that he merely follows the latter’s legacy commonly leads to excellence and success. In return, the mentor pushes the student to do its best to reach the top. In the corporate world, the concept is likely to coincide. On the contrary, most corporate mentors are not interested to women subordinates due to the fact that society is pervasively structured in conformity with male privilege and hierarchal arrangements ( 2000 ). They are anxious about tokenism and stereotyping, not to mention more evident suspicion of cross-gender relationships (1989 ).
Human Capital Theory
Stemmed from the neo-classical premise, the theory tends to explain the pattern of labor force participation, specifically the female. From Becker (1985), it argues that a woman is an individual autonomous agent that maximizes utility. In the society, women are known to dedicate most of their lifetime caring and nurturing their children and submit to the needs of their husbands. This made them not to choose to invest in rigid education and training that provide the ladder for higher corporate positions in the future. Aside from the automatic provision of husbands to family needs, the government has the resources to bear some household requirement like education when financial problem arise. The resulting decision would remain to shadow domestic pursuits in replace for a corporate career.
The second woman consideration is the biological limitation which men relatively have advantage. Men have the bodily credentials to get involve in complicated and physically challenged jobs like construction, engineering and other hazardous occupations. Women are likely eminent in clerical tasks and medical assistance services like nursing. But such prevalence in such industries is not pre-requisite to assure managerial and supervisory positions. In fact, even though female dominate the nursing sector in United Kingdom which accounts for 90%, still half of the administrators are men (2000 ).
According to the theory, these marital and physical constraints present in the lives of the women serve as disincentive for them to achieve higher corporate positions. The theory sustains that women are more satisfied and fulfilled having primarily domestic functions than trying to rise above corporate positions. Being a rational individual, she will not give up the thing that provides her maximum utility for another with inferior value even if fame and fortune are attached to the turnover. As a result, women avoid big responsibilities in corporate setting and pour most of their feat of pursuing a more satisfying wife-mother role at home.
Anti-Discrimination Feats and Campaigns
Cited in the book of (1980), the of 1975 sparked the flame against women discrimination. Since then, women empowerment became a firm pursuit of government and private organizations until such time that the Sex Discrimination Act and Equal Pay Act were established. Discrimination Act recognized the importance of women in the labor force the same as the standing of men. It specifies prohibitions of discriminating acts of almost all entities and institutions which women will be in contact in the employment arena like the employer, a firm, trade unions, employers organizations, qualifying bodies responsible for recognizing qualifications and certifications, vocational institutions and employment agencies. On the other hand, Equal Pay Act entitles women to have equal pay with those men in similar employment. This is not limited to monetary aspects but also other contractual terms like employment conditions.
Further, to administer the enforcement of these Acts, several agencies were created like the Industrial Tribunals, Employment Appeal Tribunal, Central Arbitration Committee and the Equal Opportunities Commission. Each have specific functions that range form hearing cases on employment issues, cleaning discriminatory clauses in collective agreements, educational activities, investigation and providing advice. Originally, such agencies tend to prevent excessive legalism, emphasize more in good industrial relations rather than law and conduct its functions informally except the Employment Appeal Tribunal which is headed by High Court Judge accompanied by lay members knowledgeable at the case which can create case law. Although several changes had restructured the old system, their functions remain the same.
Evaluation of Prohibitions on Discriminative Acts against Women
Before assessing the extent in which policy for equal opportunities applies, it is important to note that complaints relating to sex discrimination under the Sex Discrimination Act of 1986 are decided by Employment Tribunal which should be reported by the aggrieved party within three months of the act complained. The resolution can result to declaration of rights, payment by the guilty party to the complainant and recommendation of change in behavior of the guilty with attach increase of compensation if not exercise within a specified time (I 2002).
Arrangements of Determining who should be Employed
This policy is the solution for the discriminative nature of recruiting managers. The mere unattractive physical attributes of women applicants is not an acceptable basis of competence, therefore discriminative. In most cases, those women who are not gifted physically are the ones who exemplify intelligence, hard-work and good behavior than their counterparts. But in reality, women who are not qualified because of this fact are not likely to report to authorities especially when they lack confidence with themselves or doubtful if discrimination really arise because of some manipulative remarks of employers. On the other hand, active and out-spoken women can enjoy the benefit of this provision. The agencies should consider this emotional difference in order to enforce implementation.
Access to Opportunities for Growth
This ensures women to develop their competence in any field. Prospects of promotion can motivate her to contribute more to the benefit of the company while fruitful training is evidence that she has more to reach in the corporate ladder. Women are assured to be given equal opportunities for employment growth and have bigger chance to be provided with a mentor. But constraints like possibility of giving birth may halt managers to issue them promotions in view that cessation of work may result when women are not able to work because of long maternity leave. The same as providing training, the company is likely to emphasize men than women because of the same ground of vulnerability. Women are helpless in intermittent employment because of motherhood while the exception in the Act aggravates their situation wherein discrimination cannot be enforced where essential nature of the job requires it like physiological reasons. They can resort to guarantee their employer the schedule of their possible pregnancy in order to keep the benefit from access to such opportunities.
Employer’s Liability to Discrimination Committed by Employee’s
Women experience of sexual harassments is addressed by this provision. Being a walking symbol of vanity, women are considered the most vulnerable sex object in the society. Consequently, men employees dwell into indecent attempts to express their desire for a certain women counterpart. They use discrimination tactics to achieve this end to provoke women especially if they are the superior. The problem with implementation is that only 14% of the total incidents of harassment were reported to authorities (1992). To retain their ambitions, victims opted to keep the incident beyond the knowledge of co-employees. It may disrupt her effort or worse lead to destructive remarks which can result to resignation. Counseling can be the best medium to stage the voice of the victims. Further, the employer may demand that any untoward situation like this should be reported to him beforehand can serve as obstacle and reconciliation point that avoids the reporting to authorities of such cases to preserve reputation. Thus, guilty employees are likely to get light punishments like suspension that do not leave much pressure for them to change. In effect, indecent acts are likely to occur once again.
Bibliography
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