Research Topics: Agriculture Essays

International Business

Introduction This paper intends to discuss the WTO and the current E.U. The paper also intends to discuss the E.U. and W.T.O. talks and the arguments taking place. Through the information that can be gathered  a conclusion can be formulated.   WTO World Trade Organization (WTO) is an international body that promotes and enforces the provisions of trade laws and regulations. The World Trade Organization has the authority to administer and police new and existing free trade agreements, to oversee world trade practices, and to settle trade disputes among member states. The WTO was established in 1994 when the members of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), a treaty and international trade organization, signed a new trade pact. The WTO was created to replace GATT. The WTO is based in Geneva, Switzerland, and is controlled by a General Council made up of member states’ ambassadors who also serve on various subsidiary and specialist committees. The ministerial conference, which meets every two years and appoints the WTO’s director-general, oversees the General Council. Since its creation, the WTO has attracted criticism from those concerned about free trade and economic globalization. Opponents of the WTO argue that the organization is too powerful because it can declare the laws and regulations of sovereign nations in violation of trade rules, in effect pressuring nations to change these laws. Critics also charge that WTO trade rules do not sufficiently protect workers’ rights, the environment, or human health. Some groups charge that the WTO lacks democratic accountability because its hearings on trade disputes are closed to the public and press. WTO officials have dismissed arguments that the organization is undemocratic, noting that its member nations, most of which are democracies, wrote the WTO rules and selected its leadership. WTO supporters argue that it plays a critical role in helping expand world trade and raise living standards around the world.   E.U. European Union is an organization of European countries dedicated to increasing economic integration and strengthening cooperation among its members. The European Union headquarters is in Brussels, Belgium. The EU has a number of objectives. Primarily, it works to promote and expand cooperation among its members in several areas, including economics and trade, social issues, foreign policy, security, and judicial matters. Another major goal has been to implement Economic and Monetary Union (EMU), which established a single currency for EU members. The EU has come a long way since 1951. Its membership has grown to 15 countries, and may increase to 21 or more by 2010. It has developed a common body of law, common policies and practices, and a great deal of cooperation among its members. Its progress, however, has not been consistent, with spurts of activity separated by more-dormant periods. The most immediate challenge the EU faces is to make a success of the euro, but the future of the single currency rests in part upon how acceptable it proves to world financial institutions and markets. In the long term, enlarging the EU by including Eastern Europe should improve economic prospects by extending the single market and stimulating economic growth and trade. The EU hopes that enlargement will raise the EU’s standing as the major European voice in world affairs and contribute to security and stability on the Continent. After the study of the WTO and EU the next discussion will focus on the talks between the WTO and the EU and the effects it has on the organization. Through the said discussions a needed conclusion regarding the study can be made.   The Talks between the WTO and E.U. An increasing number of people wanted changes to happen to WTO. They want the said organization to be more responsive to the needs of consumers, workers, environmentalists. This happened during a summit the WTO was having. The summit did not achieve its goal because of the disagreements between the industrialized and developing nations. These disagreements focused on the agricultural subsidiaries provided by the EU to support their farmers. This also helped in making the need for talks between the WTO and the EU.  The talks between the WTO and EU can have both positive and negative results for both of them. For the WTO the positive effect of the talks include achieving its goal of being known as a pro-poor organization, achieve its goal of achieving global trade rules, have a firmer grasp on world trade, and settling any problems regarding trade. The talks between the WTO and the EU can lead to a better image for the said organization. If the talks will end successfully the end result is people will know the WTO not as a bad trade organization but a good trade organization. Thus if the image of WTO becomes better to the eyes of the public more countries/groups will be encouraged to join the organization. If more countries will be encouraged to join the organization its power and scope can increase thus it can bring realization to the dreams and aspirations it has over trade.     Another positive effect of the talk to the WTO is it achieving its own set of global trade rules. If the talk ends positive its effect will be positive as well and a possible effect is the WTO without any hindrances or problems can create its global trade rules. The global trade rules will foster a better relationship among trading countries. It helps in bringing benefits to the trading between countries; it also lessens the burden the WTO has to carry on making sure trading countries are given the proper treatment it need. Moreover a positive effect of the talk to the WTO is it having a firmer grasp on world trade. The talk if ended positively can give the WTO more power and wider range of scope regarding world trade. The EU has a big responsibility and has many countries under it, if the WTO can agree with the EU the power it has can be shared by the WTO thus more countries can be under it and WTO can control trading more. If the WTO can have a positive talk with the EU it can impose or change trade restrictions on any country it likes, it can also control how trading between countries can result to. Lastly a positive effect of the talk to the WTO is it can settle trade riffs. The main job of the WTO is settle trade differences and brings solution to it. Through the talks the conflict between rich countries and the poor countries can be given solution. Both can acquire benefit from such.  Any country having trade disputes can be assisted on finding the proper solution to their problem. If there is no problem regarding trade restrictions and trade disputes don’t exist the WTO can focus solely on maintaining a healthy trading environment by making needed trade rules and trade policies. These positive effects can be realized if the talk ends positively and no other distractions or problems come out.   The talk between the EU and the WTO as been discussed can bring positive advantage to WTO but on the other hand its effect may not be that good. These negative effects can lead to problems much harder to solve and can cause time to find a solution.  The negative effect of the talk include conception of the rift between the EU and the WTO, people having a more negative image of WTO, trade rules more beneficial to industrialized nations, widening of the rift between industrialized and developing countries, and different world trading policies. The talk between the EU and the WTO can bring a negative effect to WTO because it might fuel or start the problem between the WTO and EU. If the WTO and EU will not agree that both will benefit from the result can be rift or misunderstanding between the two. The rift has also dire effects like more trade transactions will be pending; trading will be more difficult for countries, and others. A negative effect of the talk to WTO is a more negative image of WTO for the people. If the talks did not do anything good WTO will have to face a bigger and a redundant problem. More people will demand changes to the said organization and this might happen continuously hampering the changes the WTO wants to happen. The negative image branded to WTO can decrease the number of members it has, it can loosen its grip on world trading. Another negative effect of the talk to WTO is the trade rules will tend to be more beneficial to the industrialized countries.  During the talk the EU may force the WTO to give in to its demands and create policies that can benefit the industrialized countries. These policies can be the ones that give the developing nations a harder time to grow. These policies can be used to abuse those nations or people that are still trying to be as successful as the industrialized nation. The WTO may become unable to act on such things. If it grows worse the WTO may have so much difficulty in solving this negative effect.               Moreover a negative effect to the WTO of the talk is widening or increasing the rift between the industrialized and the developing countries. As mentioned earlier an effect of the talk is the rules or policies favoring those rich countries or those industrialized countries. Because of that the rift or the division between the industrialized and still developing countries may grow, it may be harder to find a solution to. If that happens trading will be more difficult for countries, social relationships between countries will be affected more,  wars between countries just to survive the changing world can become a possibility, and their can be increase on those hungry and dying. The WTO can feel the effects of this possibility it may not be able to solve the differences that may happen if the result of the talk is negative. Lastly a negative effect of the talk can be different world trading policies. The trading rules in one country maybe changed in another, the trading policy in one country may become beneficial to some and disadvantageous to some.  Since there is no unique policy on trade, the negative result of the talk can lead to countries changing their policies and ignoring the assistance and guidance WTO is trying to give to them. Countries can have more hard time in trading with one another. Countries who support another may give more considerations on trading to their alliance and give stricter restrictions to those they think are their rivals. On one hand the WTO may not be able to counter such problems and thus be unnecessary to countries.  These negative effects can be prevented by making sure that the result of the talk will be a positive one and the focus of the talk will be for all people to acquire benefits and not a selected few will be the ones benefiting.   The talk between the EU and the WTO as been discussed can bring both positive and negative changes to the WTO but it can also bring positive and negative changes to the EU. The succeeding discussion will give the positive advantages of the talk to the EU. The positive effect of the talk to the EU includes the EU acquiring the benefits it wants to achieve, the EU achieving a stronger grasp on the European countries, the EU can compromise helping the developing countries and at the same time gaining monetary benefits for the EU members, better image of the EU to the citizens of its member nations, and lessen external conflicts with citizens of their member nations. The talk between the EU and the WTO can bring a positive effect of EU acquiring the benefits it wants. The talk can be used as a factor for the EU to achieve the benefits it wants. It can impose the changes it is willing to do. The talk can help EU realize the goal it wants to achieve. A positive effect of the talk is the EU can have a stronger grasp on European countries. If the EU made positive changes using the meeting the members of that organization can be given satisfaction thus its members will remain under its control and more countries can be encouraged to join the organization. Another positive effect of the talk is the EU can compromise helping the developing countries and at the same time gaining monetary benefits for the EU members.  Two birds can be hit with one stone. If favorable result can come out of the talk two things can be done by the EU and these are helping developing countries and gaining monetary benefits. In some instances gaining monetary benefits cannot be equated with helping developing countries without one of the activity suffering. If the talk will be a success the two activities can be done at the same time. Given the proper conditions and proper actions acquiring benefits financially can also be done together with helping developing countries.   Moreover a positive effect of the talk is to make a better image of the EU to the citizens of its member nations. The talk can be used as a tool to improve the image of the EU not only to the member nation but to its citizens as well. The talk can make the EU more popular to the citizens and remove the negative image it has. The talk can make the EU give satisfaction to the member nations’ citizen and not be an unpopular organization. The talk can replenish the tarnished record of the EU and make it a better one that the citizen of the member nation can be proud of. Lastly a positive effect of the WTO and EU talk to EU is lessened external conflicts with citizens of their member nations. Related to having a better image through the talk is lessening or preventing conflicts with citizens of the member nations. Through the talk conflicts with the citizens can be prevented or lessened. Since not all citizens may agree with the EU and its works, principles, and goals there might be some citizens who might want to have no more EU because they have not directly seen its benefits. These citizens may cause things that EU doesn’t want to happen. These citizens may do things that may greatly affect the operations and transaction of EU.  . These conflicts can prevent transactions and trading to take place. Chaos is not good for both the EU and its member nation’s citizens both can not have the benefits they desire. Conflicts waste organizations time, resources, and energy. EU through having a positive result of the talk can be a factor in changing the mind of these people.  Through a good result of the talk chaos, conflicts between EU and its member nation’ members can be prevented and prevented. The said positive results can be achieved if there will be successful talks and if the EU can assure that it is not only the one that is benefiting from the talk.   The talk between the EU and the WTO as been discussed can bring positive advantage to EU but on the other hand its effect may not be that good. The talks can bring negative effects to the EU. These negative effects can lead to problems much harder to solve and can cause time to find a solution.   This include non-realization of the goals of the EU, the EU loosing its reason for existence, EU loosing the prestige it has, and EU gaining more problems than benefits. The talk between the EU and the WTO can bring negative effect of non-realization of the goals of the EU. The talk can remove the company from achieving its goal. It can redirect the EU to another goal. This can be due to the different issues and concerns coming out from the talk. The EU might be forced to achieve these other goals rather than going for the original goal. A negative effect of the talk to EU is the organization loosing its reason for existence. The talk may produce good result that EU may not become unneeded anymore.  At the same time the talk may produce a negative result that there is no need for EU but a newer organization might become needed. The value of the EU may diminish because of the talk.   Moreover A negative effect of the talk to EU is loosing the prestige it has. The talk not only can make EU change it goals but it can change it practices thus the prestige it once had might be lost. It might change some of its practice that made it different and gave it a higher status against other organization. It might do things that other organizations are doing. The negative things that some organizations do that makes them less prestigious can also be imitated by the EU because of the talk. Lastly A negative effect of the talk between WTO and EU is EU gaining more problems than benefits. The talk may lead the organization to a wrong path, the talk may also contribute to the factors that make the organization belong to a wrong path. If this happens EU may have more problems than benefits. These negative effects can be prevented by making sure that the result of the talk will be a positive one and the focus of the talk will be for all people to acquire benefits and not a selected few will be the ones benefiting. Additionally the talk should help the EU reaffirm its path and not create a new one for it to acquire benefits and not anymore problems.   Summary/Conclusion World Trade Organization (WTO) is an international body that promotes and enforces the provisions of trade laws and regulations. The World Trade Organization has the authority to administer and police new and existing free trade agreements, to oversee world trade practices, and to settle trade disputes among member states. European Union is an organization of European countries dedicated to increasing economic integration and strengthening cooperation among its members. The EU has a number of objectives. Primarily, it works to promote and expand cooperation among its members in several areas, including economics and trade, social issues, foreign policy, security, and judicial matters. Another major goal has been to implement Economic and Monetary Union (EMU), which established a single currency for EU members. For the WTO the positive effect of the talks include achieving its goal of being known as a pro-poor organization, achieve its goal of achieving global trade rules, have a firmer grasp on world trade, and settling any problems regarding trade. The negative effect of the talk include conception of the rift between the EU and the WTO, people having a more negative image of WTO, trade rules more beneficial to industrialized nations, widening of the rift between industrialized and developing countries, and different world trading policies. The positive effect of the talk to the EU includes the EU acquiring the benefits it wants to achieve, the EU achieving a stronger grasp on the European countries, the EU can compromise helping the developing countries and at the same time gaining monetary benefits for the EU members, better image of the EU to the citizens of its member nations, and lessen external conflicts with citizens of their member nations. The negative effect of the talk to the EU includes non-realization of the goals of the EU, the EU loosing its reason for existence, EU loosing the prestige it has, and EU gaining more problems than benefits.   As was shown in the discussion there are many benefits and disadvantage of the talks for both EU and WTO.  The arguments or the benefits and disadvantage of the talks for both the EU and WTO helps in ascertaining what can happen or may happen if the result of the talks will be good or bad. The talks can bring good or bad effects to the WTO and the EU, knowledge of the possibilities can bring changes and abrupt preparation for anything that might happen should be part of the plan.  The advantage and disadvantage of the talks to the organizations can also serve as a warning for possible future events. It can also serve as guidance on what should be done so that the disadvantage will not be felt.   Credit:ivythesis.typepad.com

International Business

Introduction This paper intends to discuss the WTO and the current E.U. The paper also intends to discuss the E.U. and W.T.O. talks and t...

G-PROTEINS

1- The discovery of G- proteins. Martin Rodbell and his colleagues found out that a transducer provided the link between the hormone receptor (the discriminator) and the amplifier. A transducer is a substance or device, such as a piezoelectric crystal, microphone, or photoelectric cell that converts input energy of one form into output energy of another. The first clue that G protein would be important in mediating hormonal action was provided in the 1970s by reports that GTP was required for hormonal stimulation of intracellular cAMP production (Walseth, 1991). Alfred G. Gilman and his collaborators used genetic and biochemical techniques to identify and purify the G protein. They used lymphoma cells that normally can be activated by a receptor to form cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP). cAMP is a second messenger that is used by different hormones (Guyton & Hall, 2000). The studies largely responsible for the identification and characterization of the G protein thus relied on the variant of S49 lymphoma cells, termed [cyc.sup-]. The [cyc.sup.-] variant was so named because it could not be stimulated by the usual activators of adenylylcyclase (Walseth, 1991).             A mutated lymphoma cell was found to contain a normal receptor and a normal cAMP-generating enzyme but was yet unable to respond because it lacked the transducer. This was a good system to assay purified G proteins. A G-protein could be isolated from normal brain tissue and inserted in the mutated cell, thereby restoring its function.           Alfred Gilman and Martin Rodbell were awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1994 for their discovery and research on G-proteins and the role of these proteins in signal transduction in cells.     The importance of G proteins was first reported in the 1970s and it was soon discovered that G proteins not only stimulate some hormones, but that they inhibit others. To date, there have been nine G proteins identified.   2- What are G proteins and their structure? G-proteins are heterotrimeric guanine nucleotide-binding proteins that participate in signal transduction in many tissues. They couple surface hormone – receptor binding to effector systems such as adenylate cyclase, phospholipases, and ion channels located on the intracellular surface of the plasma membrane (Robertson, 1992). The larger heterotrimeric G proteins are another family of G proteins which couple cell surface receptors to catalytic units that catalyze the intracellular formation of second messengers or couple the receptors directly to ion channels (Ganong, 2001). Heterotrimeric signal transducing guanine nucleotide binding proteins (G proteins) couple extracellular receptor proteins to intracellular effector enzymes and ion channels, serving as critical mediators of cellular responses to external stimuli. These proteins are a subset of a larger family of guanosine triphosphate (GTP)-binding proteins of differing molecular weight and subunit composition that share a common mechanism of GTP-binding and hydrolysis that regulates protein activity (Levine, 1996). The G-protein consists of three components: an alpha (α) component that is the activator portion of the G-protein, and beta (β) and gamma (γ) components that attach the G-protein to the inside of the cell membrane adjacent to the receptor protein (Guyton & Hall, 2000). The multiplicity of G protein subunits facilitates great combinatorial variability, which, in part, accounts for the ability of G proteins to interact with many different receptor and effector proteins. Over 100 G protein-coupled receptors have been identified. The receptors share a common serpentine structure consisting of 7 membrane-spanning domains, and detect extracellular signals as diverse as light, odorants, hormones, growth factors, and neurotransmitters. As already stated, G proteins regulate many second messenger systems, including enzymes such as adenylyl cyclase (AC), phospholipase C (PLC), and phospholipase, as well as ion channels (Levine, 1996). Eight unique adenylyl cyclase molecules have been identified. Various combinations of these provide a large number of possible αβγ complexes. The α subunits and the by complex have actions independent of those on adenylyl cyclase (Murray, et al, 2000). Small G proteins are involved in many cellular functions. Members of the Rab family of these proteins regulate the rate of vesicle traffic between the endoplasmic reticulum, the Golgi apparatus, lysosomes, endosomes, and the cell membrane (Ganong, 2001). The α subunit is bound to GTP. When a ligand binds to a G-coupled receptor, this (guanosine diphosphate) GDP is exchanged for GTP and the α subunit separates from the combined β and γ subunits. The separated α subunit brings about many biologic effects. The β and γ subunits do not separate from each other, and βγ also achieves a variety of effectors. The intrinsic GTPase activity of the α subunit then converts GTP to GDP, and this leads to reassociation of the α with the βγ subunit and termination of effector activation. Heterotrimeric G proteins relay signals from over 1000 receptors, and their effectors in the cells include ion channels and enzymes. These are 16 α, 6 β, and 12 γ genes, so a large number of subunits are produced, and they can combine in various ways. They can be divided into five families, each with a relatively characteristic set of effectors. The families are Gs, Gi, Gt, Gq, and G13 (Ganong, 2001).             Many G proteins are modified by having specific lipids attached to them, i.e., they are lapidated. Trimeric G proteins may be myristolated, palmitoylated, or prenylated. Small G proteins may be prenylated.            G-proteins are also important mediators of hormonal inhibition of insulin secretion. G proteins are also integral to the proper functioning of the pancreas because of their role in catalyzing the function of many hormones that operate on pancreatic cells (Walseth, 1991)   3- How do they work? (Functions and mechanisms). A common way to translate a signal to a biologic effect inside cells is by way of nucleotide regulatory proteins or G proteins that bind GTP. GTP is the guanosine analog of ATP. When the signal reaches a G protein, the protein exchanges GDP for GTP. The GTP-protein complex brings about the effect. The inherent GTPase activity of the protein then converts GTP to GDP, restoring the resting state. The GTPase activity is accelerated by a family RGS (regulators of G protein signaling) proteins that accelerate the formation of GDP (Ganong, 2001).             It is now apparent that there is a large family of G proteins and that these are part of the superfamily of GTPases. The G protein family can be classified according to sequence homology into four subfamilies, as illustrated in the table below.             Some forms of αi stimulate K+ channels and inhibit Ca2+ channels, and some αs molecules have the opposite effects. Members of the Gq family activate the phospholipase C group of enzymes. βγ complexes have been associated with K+ channel stimulation and phospholipase C activation. G proteins are involved in many important biologic processes in addition to hormone action (Murray, et al, 2000). Some of these are listed in the table below. Abundant experimental data have accumulated in the past 25 years that strongly support the concept that G proteins act as important modulators of pancreatic islet function. Early evidence for Gs as regulator of insulin secretion can be found in reports that β-adrenergic agonists stimulate β-cell adenylylcyclase, raise cAMP levels, and release insulin (Walseth, 1991). More extensive data have also been reported supporting the concept that Gi is a physiologically important β-cell regulatory protein. The first reports that epinephrine inhibited glucose-induced insulin secretion appeared more than 25 years ago. The ability of epinephrine to inhibit insulin secretion was shown to be dependent on α-adrenergic activity, and direct evidence for α-adrenergic receptors in the islet has been reported (Walseth, 1991).   4- Activation and inactivation of G proteins.   G-protein activity is regulated by the binding and hydrolysis of GTP by the α subunit. In the basal (nonstimulated) state, G proteins exist in the heterotrimeric form with GDP tightly bound to the α chain. Upon receptor activation, a conformational change occurs in the α chain that facilitates the exchange of bound GDP for GTP, with subsequent dissociation of the α-GTP chain from the βγ dimer and the receptor (Levine, 1996). The free α-GTP chain is now able to interact with effector enzymes and ion channels to regulate their activity. In addition, free βγ dimers modulate the activity of at least some effectors and participate in receptor desensitization. The interaction of α-GTP with the effector molecule is terminated by the hydrolysis of GTP to GDP by an endogenous GTPase. With hydrolysis of GTP to GDP, the α-GDP chain reassociates with the βγ dimer and the heterotrimeric G protein is ready for another cycle of receptor activation (Levine, 1996). Binding of the hormones with the receptor allows coupling of the receptor to a G-protein. If the G-protein stimulates the adenylyl cyclase – cAMP system, it is called a Gs protein, denoting a stimulatory G-protein. Stimulation of adenylyl cyclase, a membrane-bound enzyme, by the Gs-protein then catalyzes the conversion of a small amount of cytoplasmic adenosine triphosphate (ATP) into cAMP inside the cell (Guyton & Hall, 2000). This then activates cAMP-dependent protein kinase, which phosphorylates specific proteins in the cell, triggering biochemical reactions that ultimately lead to the cell’s response to the hormone. Once cAMP is formed inside the cell, it usually activates a cascade of enzymes. That is, a first enzyme is activated, which then activates another enzyme, which activates a third, and so forth. The importance of this mechanism is that only a few molecules of activated adenylyl cyclase immediately inside the cell membrane can cause many more molecules of the next enzyme to be activated, which can cause still more molecules of the third enzyme to be activated, and so forth. In this way, even the slightest amount of hormone acting on the cell surface can initiate a powerful cascading activating force for the entire cell. If binding of the hormone to its receptors is coupled to an inhibitory G-protein (denoted Gi-protein), adenylyl cyclase will be inhibited, reducing the formation of cAMP and ultimately leading to an inhibitory action in the cell. Thus, depending on the coupling of the hormone receptor to an inhibitory or stimulatory G-protein, a hormone can either increase or decrease the concentration of cAMP and phosphorylation of key proteins inside the cell (Guyton & Hall, 2000). In the postsynaptic neurons, there are several types of second messenger systems. One of the most prevailing types in neurons uses the G-proteins. A G protein is attached to the portion of the receptor protein that protrudes to the interior of the cell (Guyton & Hall, 2000). On activation by a nerve impulse, the α portion of the G-protein separates from the β and γ portions and then is free to move within the cytoplasm of the cell. Inside the cytoplasm, the separated α component performs one or more multiple functions, depending on the specific characteristic of each type of neuron (Guyton & Hall, 2000).             To summarize, the favored theory explaining activation of G proteins involves a critical exchange of GTP for GDP on the α-subunit catalyzed by the interaction of the heterotrimeric G protein with the hormone-receptor complex. After association of the hormone-receptor complex with the heterotrimeric G protein and the GTP-GDP exchange, the β and γ subunits dissociate from the heterotrimeric complex. This allows the dissociated α-subunit-GTP complex to enter an activated state. It is this activated species that couples to effector systems, e.g., adenylylcyclase, to regulate effector-system function. The activated α-subunit possesses intrinsic GTPase activity that can hydrolyze the bound GTP to GDP, which terminates activation of the α-subunit. Thus, closely integrated activation-autodeactivation of the G-protein α-subunit completes the cycle and allows the α-subunit-GDP complex to reassociate with β and γ subunits to reform the heterotrimer and return to the quiescent state.   REFERENCES   Ganong, W. 2001, Review of Medical Physiology 20th Edition. McGraw-Hill. Guyton, A. and Hall, J. 2000, Textbook of Medical Physiology 10th Edition. Harcourt Asia Pte Ltd. Levine, M.A. 1996, Clinical Implications of Genetic Defects in G Proteins: The Molecular Basis of McCune-Albright Syndrome and Albright Hereditary Osteodystrophy, Medicine. Murray, R.K., Granner, D.K., Mayes, P.A. & Rodwell, V.W. 2000, Harper’s Biochemistry 25th Edition, McGraw-Hill. Robertson, R.P. 1992, G-Proteins and Hormonal Inhibition of Insulin Secretion from HIT-T15 Cells and Isolated Rat Islets, Diabetes. The Discovery of G Proteins, Retrieved from:             http://nobelprize.org/medicine/laureates/1994/illpres/disc-gprot.html Walseth, T.F. 1991, G Proteins and Modulation of Insulin Secretion, Diabetes. Credit:ivythesis.typepad.com

G-PROTEINS

1- The discovery of G- proteins. Martin Rodbell and his colleagues found out that a transducer provided the link between the hormone rece...

The Agriculture Industry

For NCU cover sheet             Agriculture Industry Management     Introduction   The agriculture industry evolved during the 20th century as one of the important and stable industries the society and the people has ever need most in the involvement of industry management in the workforce as certain changes in the context is relevant for a better establishment of management theories and practices within the organizational understanding, people management, complexity and the use of scientific theory in management. Moreover, the evolution of management in dealing to the agriculture industry in its respected changes is a critical indication that the industry is adapting to certain innovative aspects of change in lieu to its management development and other focal points needed for the realization of explanation and discussions of relevant information data to be used for the completion of this research presentation.   Discussions Generally, agriculture industry is unique in terms of its economies as the farm sectors comprise highly competitive businessmen, producing a relatively homogeneous commodity in a market with conscious consumers. In other words, agriculture would appear to be the ideal industry evolved from the twentieth century in which to realize steady competitive market to the benefit of both producers and consumers. The demand for food in developed countries is more static: unlike demand for motor cars, consumption of food does not increase if its price falls as productivity and production increases.   Thus, agricultural production is determined to a great extent by climatic factors of support and expense to the agriculture industry. Recently, there is no longer a great need for such countries to protect their agriculture industry in order to secure food supplies because agricultural technology has ensured that farming has become a business of people that can produce food supply along with the spread of new technology (Hunt, 1991; Zackary, 1996). Organizational Understanding   The concept understanding organization involves the key issue within management and organization studies as it provides a useful and comprehensive guide to understanding agriculture industries from a range of contexts and business sectors as well as the exploration of perspectives and the expansion of the management process and change and providing a new framework for industry research and development assumptions drawing upon the range of relevant theories within the industry.  2000;  2000) Thus, organizational understanding provides great breadth within its process approach covering a wide spectrum of management and organization while developing theoretical approach to the culture of organization. The recognition of the relevance of certain advances for understanding industries in the workplace within the issues ( 2000; 2001)       People Management Managing people can be considered as the most crucial part in the agriculture industry as it involves a greater emphasis on the attitude of people in dealing to their performance and effectiveness in determining complex roles in various industry situations along with the status of good values and character. (2003) In people management, enough process of communication is a requirement in developing camaraderie within individual workers and team composition. (2003) Since in the agriculture industry, the presence of people are an important factor mostly in various scientific processes so, proper handling and management of people is totally needed to achieve goals and objectives of the industry to be able to increase and maintain such growth and stability. (  2003) Thus, performance demands on how people are managed within change across organizations and changes in the critical competencies for management development programs including a better understanding of such efforts from the integrated management how dramatically the industry culture has changed in the past years. These changes have a significant impact on organizational efforts in order for the agriculture industries to be successful. (2003)       Complexity The complexity theory helps agriculture industry as it informs the people involved on how to think regarding its evolutionary processes along with implications for understanding organization industries and for directing where and how the inquiries should take place by means of active research on organizations, management, strategy, reintegrating strategy and organization theory to a simple discipline to a different kind of discipline. (2002) Henceforth, management involves strategy in dealing with people and people are much more difficult to understand and deal with than of the machines though few management theories attempt to model people simply as machines. . (2002) Moreover, complexity is to be understood as complexity must be accepted within the environment in which the agriculture industry finds security in the business. It is not necessary to introduce applied complexity to the business world. Science says that complexity cannot be controlled in the way people would like, but it can be influenced. . (2002) Thus, complexity builds on the industries and incorporates aspects in specific ways. The management guided by complexity research is not merely sitting back and waiting for good things to emerge as it will not work. (2002) There needs to supply a structure within which creativity can develop around the industry people.         Scientific Theory in Management   Management is perhaps the youngest science between managers and workers as neutralized by systematic study of both the work involved and the management required. (1947) The role of management must be and direct the agriculture laborers and establish an appropriate industry scheme which promoted the idea that scientific theory in management could be analyzed from a theoretical standpoint as it continues to be an influential framework as well as to create a new body of scientific knowledge to be of relevant use by agriculture business. (1947) There is still principle which underlies management theory as the best idea that it is both possible and worthwhile to codify theory of management into a series of agriculture industry rules to include activities which feed off management theory in the process of its development outlook per se. There have been assumptions behind management action in business, as it can have an impact the criticism which emphasizes scientific management development to a narrow process that has better connection with what effective managers actually do in considerably complex in development and practice which underlie changes in the management theory from describing a situation to formulating a scientific understanding of it. (1947)         What most industry mangers think of as scientific management is based on a conception of science that few current scientists would defend with the volatility of the business environment, scientists have also become preoccupied with the inherent of nature and with the dynamics of unstable systems in the natural world with ample opportunity for fruitful dialogue between the world of management and the world of science and that the theory in management has opted for industry strategy and has outsourced research and development function. Thus, seldom theory is applied in management development because industry gives much wait to certain applications for the desired outcome. Theory can help the industry people learn what can be generalized from one unique experience and applied in such situation and be able to select and adapt from past learning to meet current needs and conditions. (The Taylor Society, 1972)   Furthermore, management development is a combination of theory and practice as well as the learning theory as it tends to simplify complex relationships by removing from consideration variables thought to be of lesser concern to permit focusing on the variables of greater interest. (The Taylor Society, 1972) However, management development seeks to integrate the flow from useful industry sources as well as utilizes management theory in order to determine program content needed by industry managers in specific situations. It integrates the content with the most effective development approaches to motivate and help people acquire and utilize the competencies effective in the workforce. (The Taylor Society, 1972)   Changes in the Industry in terms of its Evolution in Management Management development is necessary because the agriculture industry may have a wealth of practical managerial experience along with the changes in the agriculture industry in understanding such behavior and scientific management of its essential per se. Moreover, given the rapid changes in the business society and technology, management development needs to be a lifelong process. (000) This is important in order to prevent the individual and the industry from becoming obsolete in integrating its management approaches to the business. ( 2000) Henceforth, to the general belief that management development is a vital necessity for participating into programs because the nature of managerial behavior constantly changes as the result of research findings and the development of an impressive array of management techniques and approaches in special management development programs. (Capra, 1991) The development of effective concepts to the increasing use of management development programs throughout the different career and organizational levels. Furthermore, modern management development changes the agriculture industry with the integration of theory, knowledge and business experience and attempts to provide solutions to meet such industry needs. (Haas, 1990) Thus, management development is an effort to develop and improve industry competencies with impact on attitudes and change behavior of what is expected in the future and the needed to carry out industry tasks no matter how the managerial role changes over time.       Discuss the development of scientific management   Modern scientific management is fully planned out by the management in most cases describing in detail the task as well as the means used in doing the work. The task specifies not only what is to be done but how it is to be done and the exact time allowed for doing it so that both good and careful work are called for in their performance, but it should be distinctly understood that in no case is called upon to work at a pace. (The Taylor Society, 1972)   Thus, in order to prove that the best management is a true science, resting upon clearly defined rules and principles and to show that the fundamental principles of scientific management are applicable to certain human activities from simplest individual acts to the work of established industries for the most elaborate cooperation as well as to convince the society that whenever the management principles are applied then results must follow which are truly astounding. (The Taylor Society, 1972)                   Evaluate early attempts to develop business efficiency There was an early attempt to develop agriculture industry efficiency which was truly far-reaching. It can help business countries to improve their resource productivity, encourage them to reach their full potential without depleting their material resource heritage and provide industry sectors with the essentials to develop innovative ways that energize and enable society to become sustainable. (1990) The important point is that the paradigm is different as business efficiency can be measured while controlling for the influence of management process and development within the organization context of product quality measurement. (1983) Instead, the focus was set on recent developments those dealing with the measurement of total factor productivity and the relationship between industry management and its efficiency with the emphasis on its consideration of the process. Thus,  such changes in business efficiency is understood to be the change in how far an observation is from the frontier of technology and the latter is understood to be shifts in the production frontier as well as technical change  and change in efficiency. (1983)               Describe the development of Human Resource Management   One factor that seems to be receiving more attention is the people who work for agriculture industries that are realizing the likelihood of sustained success on learning to get the maximum out of their employees as it had a significant impact on the practice of human resources management (HRM). (Williams and Huber, 1986) Thus, industries entering the business environment today require both an understanding of the importance of human resources and effective HRM to industry success. In the process of HRM, there is an increasing emphasis on the personal needs of the industry and its members. How effectively employees contribute to organization goals depend to a larger extent upon the ability of its HRM staff. (Zukav, 1992) Moreover, human resources management efforts are planned, systematic approaches to increasing business success and aimed at developing HRM strategies for the total structure with an eye toward clarifying an industry’s current and potential problems and developing solutions for them. Human resources management then emphasizes that HRM planning needs to be closely related to the agriculture industry’s basic goals and plans. (Zukav, 1992)               Discuss the development of organizational theory An organizational theory involves a useful invention but it is a figment of the imagination representing a partial explanation. It should be used cautiously beyond being explanatory; organization theory should have plausibility and a reasonable degree of testability of usefulness to obtain agreement on criteria for demonstration of usefulness. (Campbell, 2000) However, there is no guide to moving from general models to specific application of transferring learning from one experience to another. This, there is a considerable emphasis, on the development of organizational theory as well as the management theory on the importance of recognizing pattern of the industry to work activities and the roles at work. (2001) However, no useful organization theory can be derived from an assumption of uniqueness and situation must be taken into account to maximize management and development in agriculture industries learning within the framework of general theory as presented respectively. (2001)                   Evaluate the Hawthorne Studies The Hawthorne Studies (1924-32) are one of the most important contributors to the human relations movement within organizational behavior.  The studies were undertaken at the Western Electric Company’s Hawthorne Works in Cicero, Illinois, USA.  (Mayo, 1949) The studies were originally started in 1924 by Western Electric industrial engineers who examined the effect of various lighting intensities on worker productivity. It was concluded that illumination intensity was not directly related to group activity, in fact, the engineers were quite mystified as to what had caused the increase in productivity in both groups being used in the experiment. (Berkeley, 2004) Proponents of the Hawthorne effect say that people who are singled out for a study of any kind may improve their behavior not because of any specific condition being tested, but because of the attention they receive. As the recent attempts to re-evaluate the Hawthorne experiment demonstrate, the studies continue to serve as a kind of Rorschach test for managers and industrial psychologists, enabling them to find evidence to support many different and often conflicting theories of how to motivate the modern industrial worker. (Berkeley, 2004) The Hawthorne Studies enjoy primacy in such matters because the topic is covered in textbooks and authors often add interpretive commentary about the complex causes of behavior and appropriate experimental design and that Hawthorne become part of shared knowledge that is part of the unique professional culture. (Berkeley, 2004)       Physical Layout of the Bank Wiring Room                                       Observed Social Relations     ‘                                                    Inferred Clique Structure         Source of the above figures: Retrieved from: <http://www.analytictech.com/mb021/handouts/bank_wiring.htm>             Describe the Evolution of people and organizational development The ever expanding technology has irreversibly altered the world in ways which people still tying to understood as characterized by the proliferation of information within the basic assumptions regarding society and organizations. More correctly, the Hawthorne effect is an example of the observer participating is the construction of reality. The act of observing by itself is sufficient to change reality. (2001) The implication for managers of organizations is that focused attention can initiate change. In any stable organization, the resonant frequency of the individuals must be similar. When theorists speak of a vision, they often refer to a statement of purpose handed down by the high level management. (2001) It should be no surprise that individuals often fail to resonate with a vision, since resonance only occurs when the vision is sufficiently close to one shared by the individuals. The goal of management is not to develop a vision, but rather, to find a common vision that will create resonance in individuals. The task of management is to discover the similarities in order to find a vision that is shared by the individuals in the organization. (2001)               Conclusion   Therefore, the agriculture industry grows its management development and complexity can be apparent that such support of practice in groups has engage in sharing and learning through management development in terms of improving ways of understanding organizational performance and the whole management process and context in the industry as well as creating value between its learning outcomes and the underlying industry mechanisms as an engine for the scientific theory in management and development that will positively influence industry and business performance in the agriculture language and context that can be shared by the society and the acknowledgement of business practice through changes in  management Credit:ivythesis.typepad.com

The Agriculture Industry

For NCU cover sheet Agriculture Industry Management Introduction The agriculture industry evolved during the ...

DOHA Development Round

INTRODUCTION   It was early of 2003 that there was a crucial period for the process of agricultural trade negotiations in the WTO that will be able to determine the final shape and details of certain agricultural agreement within the collision of results on developing countries as this agreement was called DOHA “development” round with the consistent participation of developing countries in the current round of agricultural trade negotiations as be grounded in analytical and empirical understanding of the effects of various research. ( 2005) Thus, there provides appraisal of the issues involved in the negotiating modalities of the European Union (EU) and United States (US) as well as Japan. The EU and the US represents the deeper reforms in terms of evaluating how the development round affects the economies of these countries most of it, the developing and least-developed countries and that the process will provide better basis for the group involved to assert priorities for crucial and useful efforts in the context of the Doha Round of World Trade Organizations respectively. (2005) The importance and the reality behind agricultural protectionism in agricultural markets of developed countries as to what DOHA development round really achieved as it is needed to keep the economist society in its proper shape and function for growth and stability of developed countries in terms of positive environment balance in useful aspect of development and change. ( 2006)     DISCUSSION   It was said that the civil society groups demanded stronger protection for developing countries in DOHA development round of international trade negotiations and asked EU in ensuring that protection for poor and development countries is built into the Doha round of trade negotiations in order to discuss EU promises to put development issues at the heart of the Doha Round. ( 2006) The Doha Development which is designed to lead to further reductions in trade barriers for agriculture, services, and textile imports, as well as ensuring that trade agreements did not damage the environment and is expected to last as the most complex trade negotiations and be given greater right to invest in developing countries without restriction. ( 2001)  Moreover, the World Trade Organization is working with the EU and other countries to help developing and least developed countries adjust to a multilateral trading system as it seems hard to believe that there will be a major ingredient of the Doha Round as it implies to the agricultural protectionism of those countries affected by its presence in the economy although it is quite difficult to really liberalize services in a negotiating context based on such concessions as shown by the EU in which of intense efforts, has made very limited progress in opening up domestic markets in services on this basis. ( 2001)      Henceforth, lowering the operating costs of services would be equivalent to reducing trade barriers, creating similar opportunities based on the following quid-pro-quo: developing countries would lower their own trading costs while service providers from developed countries would gain access to new service markets in developing countries. ( 2003)  Thus, if the global community hopes to avoid unduly slow progress in the Doha Round as it needs a “Grand Vision” (, 2005) that takes the emerging market economies to take a leadership role that will help avoid the disastrous tendency to oversell the outcome of an individual round that can oversold the Doha development in terms of protecting the importance of agriculture in developed countries. ( 2003)   Henceforth, in supporting further achievements such deal of the Doha Round can be good and successful if there is a satisfactory outcome on agriculture even though the deal cannot consist solely of agriculture as for European Union, the US and Japan, the ‘pain’ they will have to endure on agriculture can only be justified politically if they can achieve gains in areas like services and industrial tariffs. However, the reality is that the Doha Round has been an enterprise consisting of a number of components of which agriculture is considered and striking a deal which could be balanced and realistic and holds out the prospect of a final accord which serves everyone’s interests for good living. (2002)     When Doha round of trade talks began, World Trade Organization aimed to establish a framework for negotiations to reduce trade barriers and subsidies in agriculture. There can be no overstating the importance of these negotiations, particularly for developing countries. ( 2001) Rich countries’ agricultural subsidies and import barriers pose a significant obstacle to development and poverty alleviation in the developing world, where more than 97 percent of the people are engaged in agriculture and import barriers could lift annual rural income in the developing world and the total development process globally. ( 2001)  The framework for future reform of trade in agriculture are vital to the negotiations because they spell out how governments should address key issues like tariff reductions, curbing of export competition distortions, special and differential treatment for developing countries and cutting domestic subsidies to farmers. (1999) On the contrary, there are widespread indications that delegations are committed to carry on with their work in agriculture and other areas as well. It is essential that they do so. It is just as crucial that governments pursue a strategy of positive linkages among the issues that comprise the Doha negotiations. ( 2005) Agriculture is by no means the only element of these talks. Issues like the liberalization of trade in services, the reduction of tariffs on manufactured products, rules for dealing with unfair trade practices and the relationship between trade and environmental protection are important and must continue if the Doha round is successful and the global trading system is to remain vibrant. (2005)   The Doha negotiations constitute what is known as a single undertaking. ( 2005) This facilitates tradeoffs, so governments that are reluctant to break down import barriers in one sector may be more agreeable if they are presented with opportunities for exporters in another sector. In other words, by inching closer to agreement to pare back barriers to trade in telecommunications as it may become easier to find solutions to the problems we face in agriculture. (2001) Failure to reach agreement on the Doha negotiations would possibly raise fears that governments are incapable of taking the decisions needed to address the global economic slowdown and to help alleviate poverty in the developing world. All of this would send a very bad signal to a very nervous world. (1992) USA and EU tried to introduce ‘new issues’ of trade and investment, playing down contentious issues, opening negotiations on existing agreements and initiating new tariff discussions. (2002) Thus, the excessive protectionism that restricts the reach of ‘developing country’ markets was also not addressed and some critics have suggested that this will even intensify in view of the global economic downturn in years. (, 2002)       Greater participation in world trade, according to this view, will directly increase the income of the poorest one-fifth of the world’s population. Trade liberalization has many negative impacts on the agricultural policies of southern countries however, shifting the priorities of the government from their own citizens to the needs of a volatile international market. Agriculture accounts for less than 10 per cent of world trade, some 70 per cent of which comes from ‘developing countries’ (, 2001) as the global agro-food system is skewed against the interests of poor farmers. Those who have broken into these markets have not always seen incomes rise, since prices have actually fallen for a number of agricultural commodities which has not always led to ‘pro-poor growth’ (2001). The bad news is that the Doha round of the World Trade Organization remains on life support. (, 2005) The good news is that it is not completely dead as there were some hard decisions on agricultural subsidies were kicked down the road and a tentative timetable for resolving them in lieu of keeping trade liberalization moving forward in the difficult areas of agriculture and services is one of the most important issues now facing the international community. (2005) The trade talks are in constant danger of foundering between anti-globalization protestors’ of the modern world and the developed countries’ attachment to subsidies of domestic interest groups which closes their markets to products from developing countries. (, 2003)     The way the industrial countries could provide even greater benefits to the developing countries: trade liberalization because such removal of industrial country barriers would provide the opportunity to developing countries to boost economic growth through increased exports. (2003) Moreover, opening markets would give gains to the industrial countries in the form of lower prices for their loyal consumers and meant that it is critical for the existing Doha Development Round of trade negotiations in the WTO ( 2003) achieve deep liberalization that justifies the economy for the positive status in agriculture as the Doha round almost failed to aspire for their effectiveness in those countries within the boosting of political commitment from the leaders of both the rich and the developing countries amicably. (2003)                 CONCLUSION   There needs to be done in agriculture and manufacturing and that rich and emerging economies should liberalize agriculture and the few remaining protected industrial sectors that are crucial for developing countries, developing countries should focus on reducing and binding their duties as several developing countries cover a quarter of their GDP for most of the least developed countries and that would be roughly what was achieved. (2004) Moreover, if the Doha round triggers domestic reforms, welfare gains are enormous despite the fact that the aggregate level of its agriculture protection has been moved within the effective liberalization and needs to convince other developing countries that most of the gains that developing countries will get from freer trade will come from their own liberalization within the useful trading powers as crucial for the long-term credibility of the multilateral trade regime. The United States and the EU should facilitate such an overhaul and needs to eliminate their own protectionist clusters in relation to the poorest countries and possibly give the emerging trading powers the role these countries deserve. ( 2005)     ________________________________________________________________________     Credit:ivythesis.typepad.com

DOHA Development Round

INTRODUCTION It was early of 2003 that there was a crucial period for the process of agricultural trade negotiations in the WTO tha...