Research Topics: History Essays

The Great Depression

The Great Depression             The Great Depression is considered as one of the darkest times of American history. It is considered as a traumatic experience of those who lived through it and has a profound impact on the generations after. The Great Depression is also considered as one of the dominant forces that molded the United States into what it is today. According to Himmelberg (2001), the depression brought great hardship and suffering to millions of Americans and it was instrumental in the shaping of America’s economic, political, and social spheres. Himmelberg (2001) adds that “the depression made a strong impact on people’s everyday lives because so many suffered from economic hardship and insecurity”.             The Great Depression can be seen as a “peak” of a business cycle. Depressions occur when there is not enough demand for all the goods and services that an economy produces. Inventories of unsold goods build up, and manufacturers cut production by laying off workers and buying less of the raw materials that they use to make their products. Service providers, from doctors to hair stylists, have fewer clients, and their incomes fall. Most economists believe that such falling demand is a normal part of what is commonly called a business cycle. Demand for two kinds of goods–durable goods and capital goods–tends to fluctuate, and these fluctuations drive the cycle. Durable goods are consumer goods that last a long time, such as automobiles, appliances, and home furnishings. Demand for such goods increases when consumers are feeling prosperous; it falls when they are not feeling prosperous. Many economists also believe that durable goods markets can be “saturated”–that there are, in other words, times when most consumers have purchased the durables that they want and have no desire to buy more. At such times, demand obviously will fall. Capital goods are goods such as factory buildings, machinery, and equipment. These are goods that are used to produce other goods. Business firms invest in such goods only when they feel that consumers will buy what is produced by the new capital goods. When that prospect seems doubtful, demand for these goods falls. Events during the mid-1920s illustrate the high point (“peak”) of a business cycle. In these years, there was a great increase in the number of Americans who bought houses, home furnishings, appliances, and automobiles. Towns and cities were growing rapidly, and state and local governments spent money to provide roads, sidewalks, and water and sewage services. The homes of town dwellers were connected to electricity and telephone services. Spending by consumers, business firms, and state and local governments created plentiful, high-paying jobs. In the late 1920s, demand was beginning to soften for houses and automobiles. Cities and states had completed most of the efforts they had undertaken to provide services for their citizens. In the summer of 1929, total spending in the American economy was falling, and business firms began to cut production. October’s stock market crash–signaling to shareholders that business profits would fall–probably made the recession worse. There was a loss of wealth and, as a result, people spent less, but the crash did not cause the recession. After the crash, the economy seemed to recover and the people were optimistic. However, the recovery of the economy was short-lived. At first, most observers thought that the recession would be temporary. Stock prices began to rise again, and the unemployed, aided by local and private charities, were assured that “Prosperity is just around the corner”–that is, the downward trend of the business cycle would hit bottom and the economy would start to recover. But this did not happen. Total demand stayed low. Business firms continued to lay off employees, and many firms went bankrupt. Then, in 1930, banks began to fail in large numbers, wiping out the savings of potential buyers and further lowering demand. State and local relief funds were soon exhausted, and many laid-off workers and their families, who had only recently led comfortable lives, now faced hunger and even homelessness (Caldwell & O’Driscoll, 2007). The Years before the Great Depression             The Great Depression devastated the whole world in the 1920s up to early 1940s. It is considered as one of the longest and most wide-spread economic depression in the 20th century. The United States, was one of the most severely hit by economic depression that started in late 1920s and ended in the early 1940s.             The onset of the Great Depression came with a shocking suddenness. In the space of a few days in October 1929, values on the New York Stock Exchange abruptly collapsed, wiping out the heady optimism of the “great bull market: of 1928-1929 and the seeming invincibility of Republican prosperity. Several years before the Great Depression, the American economy was doing good, considering that it was recovering from World War I. Stock values had risen steadily and with a nearly unbroken pace since 1922. After the World War I, the United States experienced an economic depression. World War I according to Himmelberg (2001), had placed great demands on the American economy, even before direct American participation began in 1917. Excessive demand led to a steep inflation of prices and set the economy up for an equally sharp deflation when the high rate of government spending rapidly slackened by 1920. By late 1921, the signs of recovery were clear. A long period of prosperity had begun, marred only by brief slowdown in the growth trend and by the failure of certain sectors of the economy, such as agriculture, to keep pace. The economic recovery of the 1920s was seen as a good sign by the people. People from the higher levels of the society as well as the white-collar and blue-collar workers felt the growth of the economy. Production and consumption of the goods that are the stuff of modern industrial economy came into their own in the 1920s.             It was the newer, highly innovative industries that fueled the expansion of the 1920s. During the decade auto registration rose from 9 to 27 million as the automobile industry, led by Henry Ford’s highly affordable Model T, put ownership within the reach of a mass market. Electrical goods too flooded markets from new American factories as refrigerators replaced the “ice-box” in a high proportion of urban homes, brooms gave way to vacuum cleaners, and radios brought entertainment, sporting events, and news into the home. The enormous increase in such products and the rapid expansion of the automobile indicated that higher incomes and more modern consumption patterns were filtering down from the well-to-do through the middle class and the working class. Advertising begun to flourish and adopted newer and more high-powered techniques for manipulating consumers.             Although the people became optimistic for the future, the prosperity of the 1920s was short-lived. National income grew rapidly, but the share of the increase going to those in the upper two-fifths of the income scale was far higher than for those lower down on it. Blue-collar workers enjoyed relatively stable employment, but their wages grew only modestly, and the income of family farmers did not grow commensurately with that of the urban middle class. What Fueled the Great Depression?             In order to understand the cures that ended the Great Depression, it is important that we should first look at the causes of the Great Depression.             Many theories have been developed to explain the occurrence of the Great Depression. One of the most popular among these is the Keynesian model, named after John Maynard Keynes, a very famous economist. The Keynesian explanation of the Great Depression according to Knoop (2004) centered on a major decrease in aggregate demand caused by sharp falls in investment and consumption. The decrease in investment and consumption were the result of a huge decline in expectation. This fall in aggregate demand had real effects on the economy because of wage inflexibility in the labor market (p. 144). According to the Keynesian explanation of the Great Depression, the decline in the total demand was so severe that adequate demand could only be restored only by large increases in government spending (Caldwell & O’Driscoll, 2007).   Another explanation was put forth by the supporters of the Monetarist theory of business cycles. Monetarists argue that the Great Depression was caused by a large decrease in the money supply that occurred because of the Federal Reserve’s ignorance and incompetence. This decline in the money supply reduced the aggregate demand for two reasons – a lower money supply reduced aggregate spending and a decrease in the money supply reduced liquidity in the banking system, leading to banking failures and high real interest rates. The decline in financial intermediation that resulted led to further reductions in spending, investment, and aggregate demand (Knoop, 2004). Caldwell and O’Driscoll (2007) supported this view, arguing that the length and severity of the Great Depression resulted primarily from the unwillingness of the Federal Reserve System to prevent bank failures and to maintain a large enough money supply. According to Gordon and Wilcox (1981) there were different factors that led to the Great Depression. The Great Depression can be traced to a series of domestic spending shocks, both monetary and non-monetary. The initial decline in output during the 1929-1931 period can be traced to a decline in consumption and residential investment expenditures. Friedman and Schwartz (1963) argued that the Great Depression resulted from the perverse actions of the Federal Reserve in letting the money supply decline drastically. Eichengreen (1992) asserted that the Great Depression resulted from a shift of the aggregate demand curve to the left and the impact of the monetary contraction was transmitted worldwide via operation of the “Gold Standard”. The gold standard was believed to provide an equilibrium by means of a simple mechanism which seemed to work as if governed by a law of nature. Two of its supporters such as Hume (1752) recommended the free flow of the precious metals. According to the Gold Standard’s supporters, if precious metals flowed out of a country they would thereby lower the prices and their inflow would increase the prices elsewhere, which would then lead to their flowing back to countries where the prices were lower. This process would work best without any interference. This proved to be an illusion. According to Rothermund (1996) the Golden Standard did nit work automatically at all but depended on the existence of a powerful lender of last resort, an institution which was able to ensure the liquidity and stability of the world market. Another factor that was often cited for the fall of the Great Depression on the United States was the failure of the Federal Reserve System. The Federal Reserve System according to the National Council for the Social Studies (2007) was established in 1913, in part to prevent bank failures by lending reserves to banks that were experiencing unusually high cash withdrawals. On the eve of the Depression, the first concern of the 12 regional Federal Reserve Banks should have been the overall health of the financial system. But the regional presidents of the Federal Reserve Banks were hesitant to lend banks in their districts. In consequence, many banks were allowed to fail, and the failures caused fear among account holders in sound banks, prompting them to panic and withdraw their funds. The Federal Reserve System also raised interest rates in late 1931, which discouraged business borrowing and contracted the money supply. Banks keep some of their reserves in the form of bonds. When interest rates rise, the prices of bonds fall; banks then hold assets that have declined in value, yielding less revenue when banks sell them to raise funds to pay depositors (National Council for the Social Studies, 2007). The First Wave of the Great Depression (1929-1931)             The breath-taking growth of the American stock market became the symbol of prosperity and became a gauge of the capacity of the United States to produce endless wealth. Though limited by modern standards, the number of Americans drawn into stock market speculation grew rapidly and was far greater by the late 1920s that ever before. Indeed, the whole United States was caught unaware when the crash came in 1929. Consumers and investors were shocked and they lost their confidence. This aggravated the economic downturn, which became more and more visible in the months after the collapse of the market. The fall of the market signaled the end of the era of prosperity. It wiped out the savings and confidence of many Americans. The United States did not expect that the economic crash in 1929 only marked the beginning of a decade-long economic depression. Politicians, businessmen and journalists believed that like the economic depression prior 1922, the economic depression of 1929 will be short-lived. According to Himmelberg (2001), there was a deeply engrained belief among business circles that the modern economy, with its immense production and consumption of so great a variety and volume of consumer goods, had become virtually depression-proof. These beliefs and hopes proved vain. Unemployment rose steadily throughout 1930; consumer spending and production of goods and services fell relentlessly, even though gradually; the stock market continued its decline; farm prices collapsed; and many banks, squeezed by the inability of borrowers to repay loans, approached the brink of failure. American exports, moreover, declined sharply as depressed conditions appeared in Europe soon after the American crash in late 1929. The Second Wave of the Great Depression (1931-1933)             The second wave of the Great Depression was more severe than the first. During the second wave, there were banking panics and failures that resulted in the crash of financial intermediation and investment. Because of the banking industry’s failure, the economy contracted rapidly. Industrial production according to Knoop (2004) fell by 43% between April 1931 and June 1932, and unemployment rose to 24%. Recovery from the Great Depression (1933-1941)             When Roosevelt came into power in 1933, the gold standard was abandoned which resulted in the devaluation of dollar. France and other European countries, except Germany, also abandoned the gold standard. All countries that dropped the gold standard started to recover after doing so. Once the gold standard was dropped, recovery was strong. According to Bernanke (1995) non-gold standard countries were found to have higher production, prices, money supplies, employment, interest rates, exports, and stock prices than their counterparts that remained on the gold standard. In the United States, the New Deal policies put forward by Roosevelt were found to be beneficial to the economy. Increase in government spending and reductions in taxes stimulated aggregate demand and raised consumer confidence by creating the impression that the government was doing something to improve the economic situation. While these policies were beneficial, it cannot be denied that these were not enough to solve the big problems brought about by the Great depression. The recovery started in 1933, although this was slow. Output had fallen so far below the natural rate that it would necessarily take a long time for it to recover. The recovery was also slowed by the large decline in the capital stock and the lost job skills and training that accompanied lost job opportunities. Output rose very gradually from 1933 to 1937, followed by a short recession from 1937 to 1938. By the 1940, unemployment was still at 14.6% (Knoop, 2004). What Ended the Great Depression? Keynesian Explanation             The Keynesian explanation is based on the theories of John Maynard Keynes. In his 1936 book entitled “The General Theory of Employment, Interest, and Money”, Keynes put emphasis on the relationship between unemployment and the Great Depression. Keynes held that it was possible for total demand in a modern economy to remain low indefinitely, leading to long periods of high unemployment. People who are unemployed are bound to spend less and because of these, businesses are forced not to produced goods which they think will not be purchased. This will further aggravate the problem as businesses will cut production and displace more workers.             The solution to this problem according to Keynes was to create enough demand to employ the work force fully which will be achieved if the government will increase spending to compensate for the decreased spending of consumers and business firms. Keynes also argued that in order to solve the problems of the Great Depression, the Federal Reserve System of the United States should create new money for the national government to borrow and spend. Rather than raising taxes, the government should take steps to create a deficit by cutting taxes, increasing spending, or some combination.  The length of the Great Depression in the United States seemed to confirm Keynesian theory. Unemployment remained high throughout the 1930s; the unemployment rate was 14.6 percent in 1940. Under Roosevelt, government spending did increase, but by far too little to achieve full employment. Only when the American government began to increase spending in preparation for World War II did unemployment begin to fall to normal levels. In light of these developments, the Keynesian explanation of the Great Depression was increasingly accepted by economists, historians, and politicians (Caldwell & O’Driscoll, 2007). Keynes had a great influence on the economic thought in America. Keynes’ great contribution was to argue convincingly that, contrary to traditional economic theory, conditions could arise in which natural economic forces, such as the availability of cheap raw materials and labor, could for long periods fail to persuade businessmen to invest in new plants and equipment. Without large investment spending, only large increases in spending on consumption could raise national income and employment, and on consumption could raise national income and employment, and only government could provide for that increase in spending (Himmelberg, 2001). According to Dadkhah (2009), Roosevelt’s New Deal and Keynes’ General theory have a strong affinity. Many believe that Keynes had a great contribution in the creation of Roosevelt’s New Deal economic policies. According to Harris (2005), when the American Government accepted deficit financing and loan expenditures, they have put into practice the theories of Keynes. The American economy also seemed to have become a testing laboratory of Keynes’ ideas. The National Recovery Administration (NRA), the Agricultural Adjustment Administration (AAA), various relief programs, the Social Security Act were interpreted in part as programs which would transfer purchasing power from non-spenders to spenders (Harris, 2005). Again in accordance with sound Keynesian theories, the government, through the Thomas Amendments and the revaluation of gold, prepared the way for monetary expansion and declining rates of interest.             The traditional views of economist was that economy’s production of goods necessarily entailed the generation of income sufficient to buy all that was produced. Keynes did not agree with this view. According to him, a large amount of a nation’s income went to those who spent on investment in new plants and equipments, not just consumption.  If this class felt opportunities to invest in new means of production were insufficiently profitable, they might prefer to keep their money in a liquid (near to cash) form. A “liquidity trap” could develop, in which too much income was saved rather than invested. This would cause an economic downturn. The solution was for government to make up the shortfall in spending by running deficits, by borrowing and spending well in excess of tax receipts (Himmelberg, 2001). New Deal Policies             Based on the arguments of Keyne’s discussed above, he came up with one solution to the Great Depression. This was for the government to stimulate the economy by increasing government spending or reducing tax collections. These moves according to Keynes would lead to budget deficits that could move the economy back toward a new equilibrium in which all resources would be fully employed. Although, the Roosevelt administration was seemingly heeding the advices of Keynes, this is not true, as Roosevelt was following different path in his economic decisions and policies. Reconstruction Finance Corporation             Due to the failure of the Federal Reserve System to prevent the crash of the banking industry, the Hoover administration created the Reconstruction Finance Corporation (RFC) in 1932. The RFC was primarily responsible for providing loans to four thousand banks, railroads, credit unions, and mortgage loan companies to provide assets that would propel commercial lending. Among the most important programs was the provision of loans to troubled banks in an attempt to provide them with enough liquidity to survive bank runs. In the Roosevelt administration the RFC retained its usage. The RFC also became the banker for many New Deal programs, providing loans or startup working capital to the Public Works Administration (PWA), the Home Owner’s Loan Corporation (HOLC), the Farm Credit Administration (FCA), the Federal Housing Administration (FHA), the Rural Electrification Administration (REA), and the Works Progress Administration (WPA). Emergency Relief and Public Works Programs             Federal spending during the Roosevelt administration was largely aimed at solving the problems that had arisen during the Great Depression. One of the central problems was determining how to aid the huge numbers of unemployed and discouraged workers. Prior to the Depression, the Federal government had assumed virtually no responsibility for the provision of relief payments to low-income people and the unemployed. Because of the dramatic increase in unemployment rates, the Federal government was pushed to take a new role. During the Roosevelt administration, the unemployment rate was more than 20 percent. In this time, the government took the main responsibility in the provision of relief. Thus, the Federal Emergency Relief Administration (FERA) was established. The FERA distributed federal monies to the states, which in turn, distributed the monies to local areas, which administered the payments to households. The FERA program offered either direct relief payments or work relief that required a family member to work for the funds. The Roosevelt administration also created Civil Works Administration (CWA) in 1933 in an attempt to lessen, the still large unemployment rate. CWA was established to immediately put people to work on public jobs. The Farm Programs             The situation of farmers was far worse that that experienced by workers cities and industries. An expansion of farms during the World War I had followed a golden era of farm prices in the early 1900s. As the Europeans recovered from the war in the early 1920s, demand for American farm products declined, and the farm sector went through a difficult shakeout in the early 1920s. After a decade of troubles farmers were hit still harder by the Great Depression. The Roosevelt administration responded to farmers’ pleas during the “First Hundred Days” by establishing a series of measures that became the basis for the nation’s modern farm programs. The goal was to limit supply and thus raise the ratio of farm prices to nonfarm prices to levels seen during the golden era just prior to World War I. The New Deal program gave rise to the rental and benefit program administered by the Agricultural Adjustment Administration (AAA). For a wide variety of farm products the AAA offered agreements to farmers that paid them to take land out of production. The funds for the program came from a tax on farm output at the location where it was first processed. Many farmer also benefited from a wide range of loan programs. The Commodity Credit Corporation (CCC) lent funds to farmers for crops in storage with terms that contributed to keeping prices high. When repayment time came, if crop prices exceeded the target level, the farmer would sell the crop on the market and repay the government loan. If crop prices were below the target, the farmer gave the crop to the government as payment of the loan. In the 1930s the CCC set the target prices above market prices, so the program operated as a price support program. National Industrial Recovery Act (NIRA)             The NIRA was the center of the early New Deal. The policy aimed to enhance economic recovery by increasing the public’s purchasing power and by imposing some measured control over the conditions of production and commerce. This act seemed to follow, Keynes’ advice, but Keynes was not pleased with what the Roosevelt administration has done. Indeed, NIRA was declared unconstitutional in 1935, two years after its enactment. The underlying economic philosophy of the NIRA was that the depression was a result of the intense competition in industry and commerce. In order to correct the evil, the act provided for the creation of business codes of fair competition to be promulgated by trade associations and industrial groups and brokered by the administration (Shamir, 1995). The workers, under NIRA were to be protected by minimum wages, limits on hours, and rules related to working conditions. The End of the Great Depression According to Keynesian Views             John Maynard Keynes put forward a new and radical theory (during his lifetime) that will explain the emergence of the Great Depression and will provide a solution to it. According to Keynes the remedies to the Great Depression center on the government’s act to spend a great deal of money in excess of tax revenues. Keynes’s analysis overturned the engrained conclusion of traditional economic theory that the competitive forces of the market economy would inevitably create sufficient demand to buy all that was produced and provide for full employment of resources. Keynes argued that the volume of investment in new plant and equipment was the key variable for maintaining full employment. Circumstances could arise, he held, in which savings would not be translated into investment over a long period and that the result could be a situation, like the depression, of protracted underemployment of resources. Keynes’s analysis provided the theoretical underpinning for the policy that most conventional economic opinion had continued to reject, that the continued state of depression mandated heavy government spending through borrowing.             American Keynesians, accepted this view and warned that the American economy was undergoing a secular stagnation. According to a famous American Keynesian, America was in the grip of secular stagnation because investment had failed and could not recover. The volume of investment would never again be sufficient to create full employment because the major stimuli that promoted investment historically – the need to develop the frontier and a booming birthrate – had now disappeared. Large-scale government deficit spending could provide for employment, but economic controls to prevent interest groups from taking advantage of rising prosperity and causing inflation would be necessary. Deficit spending might cure unemployment, but the cost would be the abandonment of a considerable degree of the freewheeling entrepreneurial capitalism America had always known and relied on.             Although the Keynesian views were rejected by many policy makers and economists, the events in early 1940s seemed to point at the correctness of Keynes’ arguments. Defense spending grew rapidly during 1940 and 1941 but vaulted to previously unimaginable levels after the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941, drew a united America into World War II. Federal spending on war production now soared. Unemployment vanished, and the standard of living rose, despite wartime scarcity of some consumer goods. By 1944 the total production of goods and services had nearly doubled relative to 1937. The surging economy of the war years served to emphasize the tragic extent of the losses economic stagnation had inflicted on the nation during the Great Depression. To many observers, it demonstrated that America could have escaped those losses. Clearly it was massive government expenditures that brought the economy to life after 1939 and ended the years of economic doldrums. For those who had called for large increases in government borrowing and spending as the way out of depression, the economic expansion and prosperity of the war years was a vindication. The economic revival, moreover, continued after World War II. After a brief postwar recession, the American economy set off on a long period of steady growth, which, with some lapses, as during the highly inflationary and intermittently depressed 1970s, has extended to the present day. High-volume governmental spending continued throughout this period. But most economists attribute postwar growth to a revived capitalism, the processes of economic innovation, and private investment in new industries and new products. American experience during and after World War II seemed to indicate that, first, deficit spending could effectively stimulate employment and, second, that American capitalism was still capable of steadily producing economic growth and a high level of employment of resources. The length of the Great Depression in the United States seemed to confirm Keynesian theory. Unemployment remained high throughout the 1930s; the unemployment rate was 14.6 percent in 1940. Under Roosevelt, government spending did increase, but by far too little to achieve full employment. Only when the American government began to increase spending in preparation for World War II did unemployment begin to fall to normal levels. In light of these developments, the Keynesian explanation of the Great Depression was increasingly accepted by economists, historians, and politicians.             The hesitation of businessmen to invest was also seen as a contributing factor to the emergence of the Great Depression. Although, Keynes pointed out that in order for the economy to regain its strength, the government must increase its spending in order to compensate for the failure of investment, both depression-era Presidents (Hoover and Roosevelt) did not pay attention. Hoover’s fiscal policy was restrained, except for 1931, when Congress enacted over the president’s veto a bill providing for the immediate payment of part of the bonus veterans were scheduled to receive under earlier legislation, in 1945. Roosevelt also practiced a restrained fiscal policy, although he acquiesced in modest deficit spending during 1933–1936 to fund unemployment relief and other programs of recovery. The modest deficits of those years stemmed not from a deliberately expansionary fiscal policy but were incidental to the creation of programs intended to alleviate the depression’s impact. The magnitude of this deficit spending was sufficient to exert some positive force on the economy but fell far short of sparking full recovery. By 1937–1938, however, when the recovery halted and reversed, Keynes’s ideas had taken root and the spending policies of the late New Deal years were influenced by them.             Another view as to the ending of the Great Depression was presented by Peter Tamin. Tamin attributes the downturn of 1929, and the ensuing Great Depression to bad governmental monetary policy. In 1928 and 1929, the Federal Reserve banks, concerned about the soaring stock market speculation, adopted interest rate policies that exerted deflationary pressures on the economy. America’s banking authorities, in other words, set interest rates at a level that slowed the pace of healthy borrowing for business purposes and limited growth of the supply of money below the real needs of the economy. None of this deterred the stock market boom, which during the first half of 1929 became more dangerously speculative than before, but it did succeed in slowing down the economy. This in turn led, in October 1929, to the Great Crash. The downward trend of the economy, once set in motion, had a momentum of its own and was aggravated by a number of circumstances, such as those mentioned earlier in this paper. The Federal Reserve System raised interest rates in early 1928, which discouraged business borrowing and spending and brought about the decline in production that began that summer. Interest rates were raised again in 1930 and 1931. Furthermore, when banks began to fail in large numbers at the end of 1930, the Federal Reserve System did little to assist them. The Federal Reserve System had been established by Congress in 1913 for the express purpose of preventing bank failure caused by a “run” on the bank. A run occurred when many customers withdrew all their deposits in the form of cash, forcing the bank to close when all its cash was depleted. In such cases, Federal Reserve Banks were to supply banks with enough cash to meet the demands of their customers, thus preventing bank failure. But, according to Friedman and Schwartz, the Federal Reserve Banks in the 1930s refused to support banks that they thought were unlikely to repay them, forcing many basically sound banks into bankruptcy. When a bank fails, its deposits can no longer be spent; as a result, the amount of money circulating in society goes down, depressing demand for goods and services. The Great Depression lasted for a long time, according to the monetarists (Friedman and his followers), because bankers were reluctant to make new loans after 1933. Bankers made only the safest and most conservative loans in these years because they believed that the Federal Reserve would not support them if they got into trouble. Furthermore, as the economy began to improve in 1936, the Federal Reserve System actually raised interest rates on loans, fearing inflation. Conclusion             In conclusion, I would like to take the Keynesian and Temin views on how the Great Depression ended. By consulting different works on the subject, I conclude that the Great Depression ended indirectly because of the New Deal programs and policies enacted by Roosevelt which resulted in the abandonment of gold standard, increase in government spending and restructuring governmental monetary policy.                 Credit:ivythesis.typepad.com

The Great Depression

The Great Depression The Great Depression is considered as one of the darkest times of American history. It is considered as...

THE BRIEF CHINESE HISTORY OF GAMBLING

THE BRIEF CHINESE HISTORY OF GAMBLING   Introduction The global gambling industry is huge and is currently valued at one trillion U.S. dollars (2003). Gambling has become a leading leisure activity in many countries. Today, popular games include state-run lotteries, electronic gaming machines (EGM), instant scratch-off tickets, sports betting, keno and charitable gambling. Defined by the (1999) as “staking money on uncertain events driven by chance”, gambling is generally accepted by the modern society. It embraces the essence of risk taking in exchange for something of greater value. Gambling is a part of the human history and performed in many parts of the world today including China. In fact, the very first accounts of gambling were recorded in China. According to a report by  (2002), Keno (a form of gambling product) was first played in China since 3,000 years ago. The basis of many of today’s favorite card games such as blackjack and poker are also thought to have been invented in China. Gambling was very popular in ancient China and throughout Chinese history despite the fact that it was under strict regulatory controls and ban. Today, social gambling in the form of mahjong playing is commonplace in China and among Chinese overseas. Government-approved lottery games are also available to 95% of China’s cities and counties, with a forecasted annual ticket sales approaching US billion by 2006 (2002). In addition, legal racetrack (i.e., horse) betting and casino gambling are available in Hong Kong and Macau respectively. Among all, Macau is perhaps one of the best gaming markets in the world, expected to rival Las Vegas as the biggest casino gaming city in the world by the end of 2005. Given the huge potential that China offers to the global gaming industry, further understanding of the Chinese history of gambling certainly deserves greater attention than it is currently given. Origin of Gambling in China Gambling started as a form of game and entertainment in ancient China. Historically, gambling had been very popular among the rich and the poor as well as all levels within the Chinese society. According to numerous accounts, the wagering of games of chance was founded around the period of Xia (2000-1500 B.C.) and Shang (1700- 1027 B.C.) dynasties. In fact, the wagering of games was already popular among Chinese belonging to the high-class segment of the Shang society. During the Spring and Autumn period (770-476 B.C.), from imperial officials to nomads, Chinese loved gambling and the variety of gambling game expanded. Improved economic conditions, especially in the cities, fueled the proliferation of gambling activities. This phenomenon also appeared during the Warring States period (475-221 B.C.), where gambling spread from inner cities to the rural countryside. During the Han dynasty (206 B.C.-A.D. 220), gambling for entertainment had become a habit among many top imperial officials. Chinese history books recorded the punishment of a number of Han imperial officials for over-indulging in gambling. The culture of gambling among officials grew during this period, along with gambling in the lower-class segment of the Han society. The variety of games further expanded. Many specialized gambling organizations started to appear during the Tang dynasty (A.D. 618-907). These organizations provided a venue for heavy gambling, causing social disorder and dissatisfaction among some Chinese. From A.D. 960 to A.D. 1279 (Song, Northern and Southern Song dynasties), gambling underwent further commercialization, along with the creation of many different forms of gambling games. With increasing prosperity, especially among cities in southern China, gambling proliferated. Some Chinese began to treat gambling as a form of livelihood, often involving the use of deception to win. In the period of Northern Song (A.D. 960-1127), the use of gambling as a promotional activities became popular. During Southern Song dynasty (A.D. 1120), a domino game called ‘Xuan He Pai’ was invented. This game, along with a card game (called ‘Ma Diao Pai’) invented during the Ming dynasty (A.D. 1368-1644), became the basis for the mahjong game that we know today. Gambling among Chinese was also common during the Yuan dynasty despite its ban. Like in the earlier dynasties, even imperial officials themselves were heavily involved in gambling activities. In the Ming dynasty (A.D. 1368-1644), many gambling dens appeared in big and small cities. In big Ming cities, some Chinese relied on gambling as a profession and many rich Chinese (especially merchant) invested in their own gambling dens. Again, from Ming to Qing (A.D. 1644-1911) dynasties, many imperial officials were obsessed with gambling. Some Qing imperial officials saw gambling dens as a good source of tax revenue. Tempted by potentially huge monetary gains, some corrupt officials collaborated with triads that were involved in gambling (and drug smuggling) businesses. Gambling during these periods was mainly concentrated along the coast of China such as Guangdong and Fujian. From the end of Qing to the founding of the People’s Republic of China (since 1949), modern casinos were gradually being formed. At this period, Gambling had become even more public especially in foreigner-occupied special territories in cities like Shanghai. Some gambling dens offered new games from overseas to fulfill the gambling desires of the Chinese gamblers. During the war with the Japanese in the 1930s and 1940s, gambling was legalized in places like Shanghai where the Japanese occupied. After the war, the new government implemented strict ban on all forms of gambling and gambling activities subsided. The Cultural Revolution in the 1960s added a further blow to gambling activities around China. Today, social gambling in the form of mahjong in China is common and public lottery games have proliferated. Gambling in the form of lottery has again been attributed to causing social disorder and problems in modern China. Besides lottery, there are also racetrack gambling in Macau and Hong Kong. Macau, in particular, is the only place in China where casino gambling is legalized. Today, besides the usual card games, popular table games in Chinese casinos include Pai Gow, Fan Tan, and Sic Bo. According to a recent report by  (2002), gambling is now favorably regarded by most Chinese as a national past time. Gambling and Control Many ancient Chinese imperial rulers believed that when gambling became an obsession, it would create serious social problems. Gambling was often associated to illegal triads or secret societies, corruption, and drugs. Hence, gambling had been under strict regulatory control and, often, ban throughout the history of China. To prevent widespread of social problems and to preserve order in the society, many imperial rulers banned gambling dens or any activities that allowed people to gather and place large gambling stakes. The purpose of these measures was to prevent these activities altogether as well as to show the public disdain for such activities. Other rulers often employed traditional Chinese philosophy and education to influence the way Chinese commoners think about gambling. Gambling was painted as a morally ‘bad’ activity that should be avoided in order to preserve social order and integrity. Hence, a compulsive gambler in China is not considered a problem gambler. Such a person is more likely to be labeled by the Chinese as a ‘bad’ or ‘undesirable’ person rather than a ‘sick’ or ‘mad’ person by the Western countries. Confucius had a saying that ‘a gentleman does not gamble’. This yielded a significant influence on the rules and regulations laid down by many Chinese imperial rulers to restrict gambling. The earliest ban on gambling in China’s history was in the Wei kingdom, during the Warring States period. In Wei, the penalty for commoners caught gambling was a monetary fine. However, penalty for heirs to royal titles was much harsher. Those royals caught would receive capital punishment, often in the form of caning. Repeated offenders would stand to lose their rights to become the heirs. The rulers of Yuan, Ming and Qing dynasties implemented nation-wide gambling ban without much success. The punishment for offenders included caning, exile and even execution. Often, imperial officials themselves were heavily involved in gambling. Towards the end of Qing dynasty, wealthy merchant and investors were regular patrons of gambling dens. Perhaps, gambling control was most successfully implemented from the early years of the People’s Republic of China to the Cultural Revolution in the 1960s and 1970s. Over these periods, gambling activities among Chinese practically ceased to exist. Credit:ivythesis.typepad.com

THE BRIEF CHINESE HISTORY OF GAMBLING

THE BRIEF CHINESE HISTORY OF GAMBLING Introduction The global gambling industry is huge and is currently valued at one tril...

Brief History of USA

Brief History of USA From its origins as a group of obscure colonies hugging the coast of the Atlantic Ocean, the United States has undergone a remarkable transformation. With a little more than two hundred years ago, as called by one political analysts, “the first Universal Nation”. The issues that were addressed in the early years continue to be addressed and resolved in today’s time. Its population of 300 million people represents almost every nationality and ethnic groups. The transitions of life evolved in different stages as the nation endured and participated in different kind of alliances and wars. The Early America lived their life until they were reached the Colonial Period. The return of Independence achieved after many years that turns into a Revolution and formation of the New Government. Their new ideas lead to the Westward Expansion and identification of Regional Differences and Conflicts. As the chain of time continues, the America experienced the Civil War and Reconstruction after the war. Their Growth and Transformation received Discontentment and introduced the Reform. Through their ups and downs, the America also experienced the World War I, Prosperity, Great Depression, Conflicts and many others until they reached the 20th century. It is a nation where the pace and extent of change — economic, technological, cultural, demographic, and social — is unceasing. Events in the United States are often the first sign of the modernization and change that inevitably bring other nations and societies into an increasingly interdependent, interconnected world. Credit:ivythesis.typepad.com

Brief History of USA

Brief History of USA From its origins as a group of obscure colonies hugging the coast of the Atlantic Ocean, the United States has unde...

Mongol Empire

Mongol Empire is considered as the biggest land empire in the entire history of the world. The territory of the said country is extended from the Yellow Sea in the eastern part of Asia up to the borders of the eastern part of Europe. (IBM 1999 World Book 2000). The Mongols are originally consisted of freely structured nomadic tribes in Mongolia, Manchuria as well as Siberia. They lived in a felt tent that they called as yurts. They raised ponies, sheep, camels, oxen as well as goats as their primary source of living. As part of their security activities, every male member of the said tribe are considered as their soldiers that are being trained in order to learned to ride as well use a bow and arrow expertly (IBM 1999 World Book 2000). The history of the empire is divided into two: the early empire and the late empire.  The early empire started under the leadership of Temujin, or Genghis Khan in late 1100’s. He is considered as the lord of all the people dwelling in felt tents because he had been able to organize and unite the scattered Mongol as well as other nomadic tribes in order to create a superior fighting force (IBM 1999 World Book 2000). As a preparation for a spectacular conquest, the Mongols had trained to become the best-disciplined as well as effective army during that time. The primary advantage of the Mongols is their ability to used military tactics. They used storming ladders and sandbags in order to seal in moats. In addition to that, Besiegers approach and siege training that is made of special arms and equipment are also applied.              The first goal of the empire was to invade China. Genghis Khan had been able to attack and control Xi Xia, a state that is beside the northwestern border of China. In 1218, Genghis Khan had turned to the west to the central Asia and Eastern Europe to conquer Russia and the Muslim lands, including Persia or Turkey that enables them to destroy many of Islamic-Arabic civilization. In 1227, Genghis Khan died and the empire was lead by his son, Ogotai. Unfortunately, Ogotai died in the middle of their campaign against Hungary and Poland (JRL World Enterprises 1998). The later empire had begun under the leadership of Kublai Khan, the grandson of Genghis Khan. He had been able to help the Mongols to completely conquer China in 1279 by attacking the Song dynasty in the South part of China. Under Kublai Khan’s leadership, he had been able to establish Cambaluc, or Beijing, as the winter capital of the empire. He also permitted the existence of different religions such as Muslim, Christians, Buddhists, Taoists and Confucianism (JRL World Enterprises 1998). Unfortunately, the Mongols were not that successful to their campaign against the Japanese people. The decline of the empire had started because of the lack of maintenance due huge size and separation of cultures and religion of the empire, during 1200s. The primary strength and primary reasons of Mongols’ success is the ability of their leader to deploy and invent different military strategies such as: sending small force close to an enemy city and run away as soon as the enemy was spotted, the enemy would then chase to the small Mongol force, but there is a large troop of Mongols that is waiting for them. The enemy will be then trap, and Mongol will start to fire so that there will be no room for the enemy to retreat (JRL World Enterprises 1998). The Mongols are confident fighters, but they don’t have enough knowledge in management. The empire leaders rely on other people to look over their affairs by bringing foreigners to China, to keep away from the total reliance on Chinese.             The empire had break-up after the death of Kublai Khan. References   IBM 1999 World Book. 2000. Mongol Empire (1279-1368). http://wwwlib.murdoch.ed u.au/find/citation/chicago.html#paraphrase (accessed April 1, 2008).   JRL World Enterprises. 1998. The Mongol Empire: A Historical Website. http://www.geocities.com/Athens/forum/2532/ (accessed April 1, 2008) Credit:ivythesis.typepad.com

Mongol Empire

Mongol Empire is considered as the biggest land empire in the entire history of the world. The territory of the said country is extended f...

The Effects of British Imperialism in India 1858-1947

British Imperialism in India   Britain started to take interest in India during the 1600s, when the British India Company, established trading posts in Bombay, Madras, and Calcutta. During that time, Britain was not a threat because the Mughal Dysnasty was able to keep European traders under control. However, the Mughal Empire was slowly deteriorating. Many states moved away from the empire causing the Mughal power to decline. The British India Company took advantage of this. In 1975, the British army, led by Robert Clive won the Battle of Plassey. Because of this, East India Company came into power. It took hold of a vast area covering almost the whole of Southern India, the territories along the Ganges River and Bangladesh.   The East India Company dominated India. The British government was the one that regulated the efforts of the company. However, the company was able to operate with minimal interference from the government. It established its own army, led by British officers and staffed by sepoys (Indian soldiers).   India was valued for its potential. The Industrial Revolution has led to the metamorphosis of Britain to one of the world’s largest industrial nation. India became its top supplier of raw materials and resources. The Indian workforce was also valued by the British. Moreover, the vast Indian market composed of almost 300 million people was very enticing for British manufacturers. India was considered as the brightest jewel in the crown – the most precious British colony.   The Indian economy was heavily restricted by the British. Independence of the Indian economy was avoided at all cost. In order to exploit the Indian resources to the fullest, the British made sure that India produces raw materials for British manufacturing and purchase British-manufactured goods. Indian businesses and manufacturers were not allowed to compete with the British. As a result, Indian goods and products were pushed out of the market. The British established a rail system to make the transportation of raw materials and finished products more efficient. Majority of raw materials produced in India were agricultural products such as tea, indigo, coffee, cotton, jute and opium.   Effects of Imperialism             India both benefited and was oppressed by the British. Britain brought India to progress and modernity. The establishment of a railroad system was beneficial both to the British and the Indians. Britain also introduce other modern facilities and infrastructures such as telephone, telegraph lines, dams, bridges, and irrigation canals. Improvements in sanitation and public health was also achieved. The educational system introduced by the British was also more advanced. As a result, more Indians were educated and literacy increased.               Along with the benefits that India received from Imperialism came the oppression and other restrictions in the Indian way of living. The British held much of the political and economic power. The Indian economy was primarily dominated by the British. Indian owned businesses and industries were not allowed to flourish. Majority of the economic benefits were reaped by the British. British policies and laws led to the demise of many Indian industries. Many farmers and villagers lost their ability to feed themselves because they were forced to grow cash crops. Famines were struck many people dead.   It has been said that Britain has exploited and plundered India. The lands were taken away from the people. The farmers were forced to produce cash crops. The outright plunder gradually took the shape of legalized exploitation. The British Imperialism was characterized by plunder, venality, nepotism, and greed of money. The result of this was the famine of 1770 which swept over a third of the population. The crisis in industry spread rapidly to the land and became a permanent crisis in agriculture. The burden of agricultural dept grew, and ownership of the land often passed to moneylenders. The number of landless laborers increased by the million. The growing presence of Christian missionaries in India, caused unrest as Indians began to fear that the British were trying to convert them to Christianity. Indians also resented the constant racism that the British expressed toward them.               As a result, there have been a growing resentment toward the British. There was also a growing feeling of nationalism among Indians. In 1957, the Sepoy Mutiny broke out, leading to other events that ultimately led to Independence. Credit:ivythesis.typepad.com

The Effects of British Imperialism in India 1858-1947

British Imperialism in India Britain started to take interest in India during the 1600s, when the British India Company, established tr...

HISTORY BEHIND REPRODUCTIVE HEALTH EDUCATION

HISTORY BEHIND REPRODUCTIVE HEALTH EDUCATION         There are many countries and regions around the world that have provided themselves different family planning and reproductive health and sexuality methods and preferences depending on their socio-cultural influences that is believed to be the basis of their education, basically the United States Agency for International Development (USAID) has been one of the most successful reproductive health education development promoter around the world. Officially they have launched the Family Planning Program from different countries including various states of Africa and certain countries in Asia. As early as of 1965 they have been promoting family planning methods so that family and population from various regions will be controlled they believed that families can have a better life through family planning.       They have envisioned such countries for growth opportunity if they can maintain their family they may be able to provide food, shelter and clothing to their children. USAID has become very successful in their promotion that they are able to reach mostly targeted success in other countries that they have visited. During their first few years of operation they focused on couples to have limited children according to their economic capability for safe parenthood and happy family living and controlled communities. They also believed that they can also protect women through controlled pregnancy, they have also advice couples to have an in between or time frame delayed before having another baby or they may use various contraceptive methods of their choice while doing so.       This method can also control population explosion that has become the problem of the government and by doing so the family can have good opportunities for education, employment and other social participation. The people themselves will be the primary contributors to economic growth by becoming socially responsible in building their own family. Within the next few years of their operations they have already introduced the use of modern contraceptive methods including pills and condoms although there have been criticism, negligence and resistance from different countries especially among the Asian regions who still exercise conservatism in fact there are religious sectors who still do not believe in this modern contraceptives and most likely they believe that this is an insult to their religious belief. In this instance and in the late 90’s USAID Family Planning has also became popular known as reproductive health.       In a formal institution history and timeline may show that as early as 1912 the National Education Association (NEA) has designed a training program to prepare teachers to include in their class sexuality in education During the 1940 the US Public Health Service has also participated in the development process and promotion that sexual education is urgently needed in the society and through these activities. In 1953 they have also attracted some schools including the American School Health Association to launch a nationwide campaign about sex education and its importance. Later in 1955 the American Medical Association follows NEA for their campaign. But only in 1960’s they have been noticed, this created a debate and controversies upon such inclusion in a formal institution like schools.       Such campaigns has not been easy from the start there were different points of view and hindrances that usually arise every now and then and it has become severe during the start of 1960’s to the early 80’s when various opponents have religiously attacked such programs especially among public and elementary schools. Conservative groups and religious sectors have battled it out over the reproductive health leaders who initiated such acts. Some organizations like The John Birch Society, Far right eagle forum organization and other opposition worldwide has joined together to argue over different topics, some even argued that sexual education may even promote increase in crimes and sexual participation among teen- agers that they may be taught to demonstrate their skills in a sexual acts in schools that suppose to teach them morality.       Most of them even condemn the use of contraceptives as another form of abortion and it is therefore illegal. But reproductive health advocates believed that such issues are irrelevant and they also believed that sex education may have even lessens sexual participation among young adults if they are properly guided. They believed that this will be the answer to the problem of the world about economic and social constraints that is now limiting our world about progress. From then on many issues about reproductive health or sex education has go beyond culture and influences that schools who believed in sex education may have included such topics in their subjects while some schools have diligently avoid this topics. Around the world this issues does not have any international standard and claims that is should be introduced in schools and government themselves will be the one to decide. The rage of religion and reproductive health educators has become a recurring trend in many countries until today.    Credit:ivythesis.typepad.com

HISTORY BEHIND REPRODUCTIVE HEALTH EDUCATION

HISTORY BEHIND REPRODUCTIVE HEALTH EDUCATION There are many countries and regions around the world that have provided themselves d...

HISTORY BEHIND REPRODUCTIVE HEALTH EDUCATION

HISTORY BEHIND REPRODUCTIVE HEALTH EDUCATION         There are many countries and regions around the world that have provided themselves different family planning and reproductive health and sexuality methods and preferences depending on their socio-cultural influences that is believed to be the basis of their education, basically the United States Agency for International Development (USAID) has been one of the most successful reproductive health education development promoter around the world. Officially they have launched the Family Planning Program from different countries including various states of Africa and certain countries in Asia. As early as of 1965 they have been promoting family planning methods so that family and population from various regions will be controlled they believed that families can have a better life through family planning.       They have envisioned such countries for growth opportunity if they can maintain their family they may be able to provide food, shelter and clothing to their children. USAID has become very successful in their promotion that they are able to reach mostly targeted success in other countries that they have visited. During their first few years of operation they focused on couples to have limited children according to their economic capability for safe parenthood and happy family living and controlled communities. They also believed that they can also protect women through controlled pregnancy, they have also advice couples to have an in between or time frame delayed before having another baby or they may use various contraceptive methods of their choice while doing so.       This method can also control population explosion that has become the problem of the government and by doing so the family can have good opportunities for education, employment and other social participation. The people themselves will be the primary contributors to economic growth by becoming socially responsible in building their own family. Within the next few years of their operations they have already introduced the use of modern contraceptive methods including pills and condoms although there have been criticism, negligence and resistance from different countries especially among the Asian regions who still exercise conservatism in fact there are religious sectors who still do not believe in this modern contraceptives and most likely they believe that this is an insult to their religious belief. In this instance and in the late 90’s USAID Family Planning has also became popular known as reproductive health.       In a formal institution history and timeline may show that as early as 1912 the National Education Association (NEA) has designed a training program to prepare teachers to include in their class sexuality in education During the 1940 the US Public Health Service has also participated in the development process and promotion that sexual education is urgently needed in the society and through these activities. In 1953 they have also attracted some schools including the American School Health Association to launch a nationwide campaign about sex education and its importance. Later in 1955 the American Medical Association follows NEA for their campaign. But only in 1960’s they have been noticed, this created a debate and controversies upon such inclusion in a formal institution like schools.       Such campaigns has not been easy from the start there were different points of view and hindrances that usually arise every now and then and it has become severe during the start of 1960’s to the early 80’s when various opponents have religiously attacked such programs especially among public and elementary schools. Conservative groups and religious sectors have battled it out over the reproductive health leaders who initiated such acts. Some organizations like The John Birch Society, Far right eagle forum organization and other opposition worldwide has joined together to argue over different topics, some even argued that sexual education may even promote increase in crimes and sexual participation among teen- agers that they may be taught to demonstrate their skills in a sexual acts in schools that suppose to teach them morality.       Most of them even condemn the use of contraceptives as another form of abortion and it is therefore illegal. But reproductive health advocates believed that such issues are irrelevant and they also believed that sex education may have even lessens sexual participation among young adults if they are properly guided. They believed that this will be the answer to the problem of the world about economic and social constraints that is now limiting our world about progress. From then on many issues about reproductive health or sex education has go beyond culture and influences that schools who believed in sex education may have included such topics in their subjects while some schools have diligently avoid this topics. Around the world this issues does not have any international standard and claims that is should be introduced in schools and government themselves will be the one to decide. The rage of religion and reproductive health educators has become a recurring trend in many countries until today.    Credit:ivythesis.typepad.com

HISTORY BEHIND REPRODUCTIVE HEALTH EDUCATION

HISTORY BEHIND REPRODUCTIVE HEALTH EDUCATION There are many countries and regions around the world that have provided themselves...

Punic Wars

Punic Wars

Credit:ivythesis.typepad.com

Historical background of Bonifacio Monument

Historical background of Bonifacio Monument In order to know the reason why Bonifacio monument has been created, it is important to know its background. On July 7, 1892, the day after Rizal’s deportation was announced, Bonifacio and others founded the Katipunan, or in full, Kataastaasang Kagalanggalang na Katipunan ng mga Anak ng Bayan “Highest and Most Respected Society of the Sons of the Country”. The secret society sought independence from Spain through armed revolt. It was influenced by Freemasonry through its rituals and organization, and several members aside from Bonifacio were also Freemasons. Most of its members, called Katipuneros, came from the lower and middle classes, with many of its local leaders being prominent figures in their municipalities. At first exclusively male, membership was later extended to females, with Bonifacio’s wife Gregoria de Jesús as a leading member. Within the society, Bonifacio developed a strong friendship with Emilio Jacinto who served as his adviser and confidant, as well as a member of the Supreme Council. Bonifacio adopted Jacinto’s Kartilla primer as the official teachings of the society in place of his own Decalogue which he judged as inferior. Bonifacio, Jacinto and Pio Valenzuela collaborated on the society’s organ Kalayaan Freedom, which had only one printed issue. Bonifacio wrote several pieces for the paper, including the poem Pag-ibig sa Tinubuang Lupà roughly, “Love for the homeland under the pseudonym Agapito Bagumbayan. The publication of Kalayaan in March 1896 led to a great increase in membership. The Katipunan spread throughout Luzon, to Panay in the Visayas and even as far as Mindanao. From less than 300 members in January 1896, The Bonifacio Monument in Caloocan City is noted by most Filipinos to be the greatest monument to valor and to love of freedom on earth honoring as it does the Philippines’ greatest revolutionary hero, Andres Bonifacio, as well as the brave band of selfless men and women who joined him in igniting the firestorm of the Philippine Revolution in August 1896. The creartion of the monument was mandated by Act No. 2760 of the Philippine Legislature on February 23, 1918 to be a lasting monument to the memory of Gat Andres Bonifacio and to the Katipuneros he led in 1896 in Asia’s first national uprising against European colonial misrule. Act No. 2760 predated by three years the passage of Act No. 2946 by the Philippine Legislature on February 16, 1921 making November 30 of each year a legal holiday to honor and remember the birth of Andres Bonifacio. Aside from Dr. Jose Rizal, Bonifacio is the only national hero to have a legal holiday marked in his honor. The passage in 1918 of Act No. 2760 is that much more notable and amazing  and historic because, at that time, the Flag Law which forbade the display of the Philippine flag (and even emblems of the Katipunan) was still in effect and would be lifted only on October 22, 1919 when the Flag Law was repealed by Act No. 2871. The Monumento World Heritage Global Campaign d this online petition signing effort are part of the year-long commemoration of the diamond jubilee (75th anniversary) of the Monumento which was completed by renowned Filipino national artist Guillermo Tolentino in 1933.  Today, the integrity of the Monumento, as the Bonifacio Monument is fondly called, is under threat with the closing of the loop of the LRT and MRT. It is ironic but the greatest monument to freedom faces the risk of being imprisoned by the light rail ring of concrete and steel that is steadily going up around it. Today, giant billboards have sprung up around the Bonifacio Monument thereby unduly diminishing its stature and importance. Filipinos everywhere are called upon to appeal to the government of the Philippines and the UNESCO (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization) to save the Monumento from further desecration. The best way this can be done is by having the Monumento enshrined in its rightful place among the UNESCO World Heritage cultural sites. Andres Bonifacio gave us our freedom. The least that we can do is to defend the integrity of the monument that is the enduring symbol of our nation’s honor and dignity. Credit:ivythesis.typepad.com

Historical background of Bonifacio Monument

Historical background of Bonifacio Monument In order to know the reason why Bonifacio monument has been created, it is important to know ...

AKHENATEN: THE 18TH DYNASTY PHARAOH – AS TAKEN FROM THE PERSPECTIVES OF ALDRED AND BREASTED

AKHENATEN: THE 18TH DYNASTY PHARAOH – AS TAKEN FROM THE PERSPECTIVES OF ALDRED AND BREASTED     Akhenaten has become a controversial figure in Egyptian history. He has been described by historians as being the pharaoh of oppression, the victim of exodus, the mentor of Moses and the instigator of Jewish monotheism. The question now is: Was Akhenaten a great king or does he deserve nothing but censure? The period of Akhenaten’s reign in ancient Egypt (1376-1350) was perceived to be historically significant because it was during his reign that drastic changes to ancient Egyptian customs and traditions, such as introducing a Monotheistic religion, altering the way the pharaoh was portrayed in art and changing the way Egypt interacted with other countries. Two of the perspectives presented about Akhenaten are those of Henry Breasted and Cyril Aldred. Breasted, an American Egyptologist ad archaeologist, wrote a book entitled Religion in Ancient Egypt in 1906, focusing on Akhenaten as ‘the first individual in history’ with important influences on religion. Aldred, on the other hand, wrote his book Akhenaten: King of Egypt which was first published in 1968 and eventually in 1988. Adred focuses more on Akhenaten’s influences on art and carefully studies archaeological evidence to support his claims. He also offers reviews of other historian’s claims.   Who is Akhenaten?   Dubbed as ‘heretic’ pharaoh, Akhenaten was son to Amentohep III and Queen Tiy. When Akhenaten succeeded the throne, he was known as Amentohep IV but changed his name to Akhenaten (the glorious spirit of Aten) on his fifth reignal year. Akhenaten was the 18th dynasty pharaoh of Egypt, It was during this time that he began to build a new city which is the Akhetaten in Middle Egypt. Akhenaten was married to whom to be known as the Great Royal Wife, Nefertiti at the beginning of his reign. They had six known daughters: Meritaten, Meketaten, Ankhesenpaaten (later became Queen of Tutankhamun), Neferneferuaten Tasherit, Neferneferure and Setepenre.   Cyril Aldred and his perspectives about Akhenaten   Cyril Aldred was born in Fullham, London, on 19 February 1914. He attended Sloane School Chelsea, and studied English at Kings College in London. Later, he attended Courtlaud Institute of Art, from which he graduated in 1936. While at Courtlaud, he met Howard Carter. He later became assistant curator at the Scottish Museum, Edinburgh. During World War II, Aldred served in the RAF before he returned in 1946 to undertake a serious study of Egyptology.   He acknowledges the many different views but returns to the evidence. Aldred focuses on archaeological evidence and Akhenaten’s influence on art. Aldred (1988) maintains that Akhenaten was a courageous innovator when he introduced monotheism, substituting the old gods of Egypt. Akhenten introduced a new all-powerful God to the world during his reign. Early on in his reign, he began supporting a new form of the old solar faith. Akhenaten attempted to make “Aten” equivalent to the word “God”, resulting in the traditional term “Divine offering” being changed to “Aton offering.” He gave this sun-God a new name and symbol. The old symbol of the sun-God was a pyramid and a falcon. This symbol was only recognised among the Egyptians, so he changed this symbol to a new one, one that people could recognise, suggesting Akhenaten’s desire for world dominance. The new symbol depicted the sun as a disk that had beams radiating downward, with each ray ending with human minds. This was a symbolism of power from a celestial source.   Further, the typical art favors routinal activities and typical experiences over the images of mythical and remote. The art is not concern in glorifying absolute sovereign, aggrandizing a ruling military caste or purveying esoteric religious symbolism. The murals of Akhenaten seemed to contradict the art prior to his regime, betraying the marked concern for nature. The art during the Amarna period has somewhat experienced major changes. People are now portrayed as they were and that Akhenaten chose to portray himself as less Godly and more human. Naturalism was the primary theme among artworks, portraying the daily life pf people with less dignified lifestyles and with very minute details. Akhenaten was depicted as more feminine than masculine by means of disfiguration. The king not only showed the naturalness of human but also of his surroundings comprising of the Nile River with vegetation and wild animals as monkeys. What the pharaoh is trying to achieve is the balance between him and his environment, which explains the many illustrations of the pharaohs at different scenarios (Smith, 1958, p. 152).   The art during the Egyptian Eighteenth Dynasty is but the promotion of an ancestral subordinate ‘low-style’ which was extrapolated from the tradition where rulers were stylized but animals and servants portrayed in freer and more naturalistic mode (Fitter, 1995, p. 38). As Aldred (1973) highlighted, Akhenaten elevated an underdeveloped demotic stratum of tradition to ruling idiom. Akhenaten’s art naturalism, however, did not reached its full potential basically as embedded on new inclusiveness of content, perspective draughtsmanship and freed play of form. The pharaonic landscape art are certain anti-traditionalist impulses that are shared with highly commercial cultures. Aldred claim that Akhenaten was a revolutionary Pharaoh who can dispose tradition for the purpose of commitment to break the power of priestly caste (pp. 53-55).           Nonetheless, Akhenaten also excavated a new Royal Tomb in the eastern hills. Apart from this, tombpainting is a commonplace in dry abstractions and otherwise eminent frolicsome objects. The new tomb would be the final resting place for Akhenaten, Nefertiti and their daughter Meritaten. Even if they died elsewhere in Egypt, they will be bought back to Akhenaten to be buried. Aldred suggests that the new location of this tomb signaled a huge change for it proclaimed that Akhenaten was breaking completely from dynastic tradition of making Royal tomb on the territory of Amum at Thebes in the Western hills. The tombs of the priests of the Aten and the high state officials would also be made at this new location, in the Royal Wadi at Akhenaten (Aldred, 1988). For Aldred, however, it was seen as reconciliation with the ‘maet’ or harmony of an ideal world, a thing that could also be jangled out of tune by human neglect or wrongdoing (Aldred, n.d., p. 11; Smith, 1958, p. 152).     Henry Breasted and his perspectives about Akhenaten   Born James Henry Breasted in 27 August 1865 to a small business owner Charles, he was the first American archaeologist and historian to obtain a PhD in Egyptology. Breasted received his education from North Central College in 1888, Chicago Theological Seminary, Yale University and University of Berlin in 1894. It was also in 1894 that he visited Egypt with wife Frances Hart for a honeymoon-cum-working vacation. The reason behind this is that Breasted was recruited to build a portfolio of Egyptian antiquities for the University of Chicago. Breasted wrote a compilation of the extant hieroglyphic inscriptions entitled Ancient Records of Egypt in 1906.   Breasted observed Akhenaten as a ‘God-intoxicated man’ whose mind is able to respond with marvelous sensitiveness and discernment to the visible evidences of God about him. Akhenaten was fairly ecstatic in his sense of the beauty of the eternal and universal light. The author noted that the modernity of Akhanaten’s teachings and his anticipation of Christian attitudes and beliefs and stressed about the king’s inadequate comprehension of the practical needs of his realm and his ‘fanaticism’ (as cited in Hornung and Lorton, 1999, p. 13). Breasted (1905) pointed out that Akhanaten started a far-reaching revolution when he started to contradict the Amun priesthood and introduced the exclusive worship of sun-disk God as well as the creation of new cities. Akhenaten’s rancor in Amun led to the changing of his name which was a derivation of the hated name Amun. Like Breasted, other historians described Akhanaten as the world’s first idealist and the world’s first individual as well as the first man to found a religion and established such a religion so pure that we must compare it to Christianity in order to discover its faults (Ibid).       Breasted (1905) was among the fist to acknowledge the profound importance of newly discovered Akhenaten and his Ra-centered religion and the development of biblical monotheism, describing it as ‘remarkable’. Breasted highlights that the surviving hymns which he himself composed and conceived in the reign of the pharaoh was a significant element in the shaping of religious beliefs of Egyptians during that time with one God ruling the entire world while also taking delight from his creative power. Implicitly, the author puts emphasis on the practice that are unethical due to the fact that Akhenaten did not recognize the great benevolent purpose by which the character of God carries or the demand for morality and righteousness in the character of men. Breasted draws his conclusions on the role of Akhenaten’s family. Queen Tiy taught much about the Aten to him and his father neglected him from religious events, while also celebrating the multiplicity of Gods. Both actions resulted to strengthened interest in Aten. The third influences would be Nefertiti, a foreigner wife who does not believe much of polytheistic convictions. Other historians like Tuthill and Hornung argue that although there are political and economic reasons behind the establishment of monotheism, is a resultant of a dispute between the father and the son; it is now Amun versus Ra-Harakty.   Slowly, during the 14th century, Amun priests are becoming wealthier and more powerful than the pharaohs. Thereby, the abandoning of Amun priesthood is mainly because of political extinction rationale, making Akhenaten a futile pharaoh. What he did is pursued Egyptians to worship the Aten, embraced monotheistic beliefs and moved to the capital city. Akhenaten dedicated a new city to the Aten. He declared that it was in fact the Aten who brought him to the location of this new city. Distant cliffs on the east bank are interrupted by a wide gap, formed by the Royal Wadi, centered in the surrounding hills. Thus forming a huge representation of the hieroglyph “Akhet” which means ‘horizon’. This could have been the reason the king named the city ‘Akhetaten’ which literally means the “Horizon of the Aten.” Akhenaten also found out that the location of the new city belonged to no one and concluded that it must have belonged solely to the Aten since the beginning of time. This was a place destined for Akhenaten’s new city.     That Akhenaten is blinded by his own modernism-oriented idealism is how Breasted portrays this 18th dynasty pharaoh. After his reign which lasted for 17 years, Akhenaten died with no successor and a soon-to-perished religious movement. Such doomed faction was a clear manifestation that Breasted could be categorized as a self-consumed ruler who uses personal power to alter immemorial customs and traditions. Although Akhenaten was inspired and moved by the beauty of creation and a pacifist that he is, the king was haunted by exigency of ruleship especially in a time that there is eagerness and pressure to create a national identity for Egypt. It was during this period that defence is being strengthened to keep Egypt from invasion and occupation. True enough, the death of the heretic ruler resulted in the relinquishment of 230 years of unprecedented power and splendor. Breasted bickered that what Akhenaten pursued was the empowerment of one’s own divinity and importance to his society. To the end, his reign remain to be a totalitarian in the name of defacing gods especially Amun and theophoric pharaohs’ names. As such, his religious conceptualism was rooted on the ideas about life, power, energy and divinity.     Reference   Aldred, C n.d. Egyptian Art.   Aldred, C 1973, Akhenaten and Nefertiti. Brooklyn Museum/Viking Press, New York.   Aldred, C 1988, Akhenaten: King of Egypt, Thames and Hudson, London.   Breasted, J H 1905, A journey through the land of the Pharaohs, 2nd edn., Camera Graphic Press, LTP, USA.   Fitter, C 1995, Poetry, Space, Landscape: Toward a New Theory, Cambridge University Press, UK.   Hornung, E and Lorton, D 1999, Akhenaten and the Religion of Light, Cornell University Press.    Smith, W S 1958, The Art and Architecture of Ancient Egypt, Penguin Books, Baltimore, MD.   Credit:ivythesis.typepad.com

AKHENATEN: THE 18TH DYNASTY PHARAOH – AS TAKEN FROM THE PERSPECTIVES OF ALDRED AND BREASTED

AKHENATEN: THE 18TH DYNASTY PHARAOH – AS TAKEN FROM THE PERSPECTIVES OF ALDRED AND BREASTED Akhenaten has become a controversial ...