Research Topics: Sample Thesis Papers

Sample Thesis Paper The significance of the 20th and 21st centuries Machine Translation Papers

OBJECTIVES As a person with knowledge of the 20th and 21st centuries Machine Translation Papers, the author has always brought up to his superiors the viability of strategy formation regarding the analysis of these topics and at times fails to understand the reasons or logic behind certain strategic implementations imposed on it. By delving into this project paper, the author intends to have better insights into how the 20th and 21st centuries Machine Translation Papers were thought up, formulated and then imparted down. The author hopes to have an in-depth understanding as to how the 20th and 21st centuries Machine Translation Papers enable companies, organizations and individuals to compete effectively and profitably in this era of internationalization where competition is extremely intense. In order to reinforce the learning objectives, two key focal issues were focused upon i.e. innovation and diversity. Innovation was discussed with regard to the 20th and 21st centuries Machine Translation Papers where they were renowned for their developmental capabilities to constantly innovate. Diversity came under strategic thinking and formation as the author considered the diverse culture, political climate, economic surroundings, social environment, technological settings, government policies and legal systems in order to better understand the issues being discussed.   ABSTRACT This essay utilized various 20th and 21st centuries Machine Translation Papers as the models to review their present implications and how they dealt with critical situations. From the analysis, key trends in the 20th and 21st centuries Machine Translation Papers were then identified, how they worked and their effectiveness in dealing with critical situations was ascertained. The paper then moved on to assess these 20th and 21st centuries Machine Translation Papers with regard to their suitability to critical situations, during which the internal capabilities of these papers in relation to the strategy being followed by most organizations nowadays was determined also. An overall analysis of the performance and effectiveness of the 20th and 21st centuries Machine Translation Papers was also conducted to assess and compare the implications of these papers with those of others. Gaps in the 20th and 21st centuries Machine Translation Papers were then identified. Finally, several choices of strategies to improve the significance of the 20th and 21st centuries Machine Translation Papers as effective means in critical situations were recommended and evaluated in terms of appropriateness to the issues reviewed, feasibility in carrying out the options and acceptability within the key stakeholders and decision makers. Several key implementation issues related to managing strategic change were also addressed as well.     Paper # 1  “The dominant framework until the late 1980s was what is now known as ‘rule-based’ machine translation (RBMT). Since then, research has been dominated by corpus-based approaches, among which the primary distinction is made between, on the one hand, statistical machine translation (SMT), based primarily on word frequency and word combinations, and on the other hand, example-based machine translation (EBMT), based on the extraction and combination of phrases (or other short parts of texts). “1 Paper # 2 “The field of machine translation (MT) was the pioneer research area in computational linguistics during the 1950s and 1960s. When it began, the assumed goal was the automatic translation of all kinds of documents at a quality equaling that of the best human translators. It became apparent very soon that this goal was impossible in the foreseeable future. Human revision of MT output was essential if the results were to be published in any form. At the same time, however, it was found that for many purposes the crude (unedited) MT output could be useful to those who wanted to get a general idea of the content of a text in an unknown language as quickly as possible.” 2 Paper # 3 “The MT Summit series of conferences began nearly fifteen years ago, in 1987 at Hakone, Japan. Much has changed in the field of MT since then. Many of the methods, systems and techniques that are familiar to us today have emerged in the last fifteen years. For example, in the late 1980s there were no example-based MT systems, no statistics-based methods, there were no translation memories, there was no text alignment, there was no localization industry, there were scarcely any MT systems for personal computers; and, above all, there was no translation on the Internet, and the World Wide Web was just a gleam in the eyes of its creators. Systems were used only by large organizations, governmental bodies and a few multinationals.” 3 Paper # 4 “Ever since the idea of using computers to translate natural languages was first proposed in the 1940s and since the first investigations were begun in the 1950s, translators have watched developments either in scorn or in trepidation. Either they have dismissed the very notion that anyone could even believe that translation could be mechanized, or (at the other extreme) they have feared that their profession would be taken over entirely by machines.” 4 Paper # 5 “In those early days, and for many years afterwards, computers were quite different from those we are familiar with today. They were large very expensive machines housed in large rooms with reinforced flooring and ventilation systems to reduce excess heat. They required a small army of maintenance engineers and a dedicated staff of operators and programmers. Most of the work was mathematical in nature, either directly for military institutions or for university departments of physics and applied mathematics with strong links to the armed forces. It was perhaps natural in these circumstances that much of the earliest work on machine translation was supported by military or intelligence funds directly or indirectly, and was intended for use by such organizations – hence the emphasis in the United States on Russian-to-English translation, and in the Soviet Union on English-to-Russian translation.” 5 Paper # 6 “Since the middle of the 1990s there has been a rapid increase in the number and variety of translation systems available, in the form of stand-alone software for ‘automatic’ translation, computer-aided translation systems for large corporations, translator workbenches, translation memory systems, on-line systems provided on the Internet (some of them free), and there will no doubt be more in the future. For the general public, computer software for translation is a quite new product; they are unaware of the advantages, limitations and methods of using such systems. They are furthermore familiar with rapid improvements of computer technology and software, and will therefore be expecting similar rapid improvements in the quality of translation software.” 6 Paper # 7 “As in other areas of NLP, three types of evaluation are recognized: adequacy evaluation to determine the fitness of MT systems within a specified operational context; diagnostic evaluation to identify limitations, errors and deficiencies, which may be corrected or improved (by the research team or by the developers); and performance evaluation to assess stages of system development or different technical implementations. Adequacy evaluation is typically performed by potential users and/or purchasers of systems (individuals, companies, or agencies); diagnostic evaluation is the concern mainly of researchers and developers; and performance evaluation may be undertaken by either researchers/developers or by potential users. In the case of production systems there are also assessments of marketability undertaken by or for MT system vendors.” 7 Paper # 8 “When machine translation was in its infancy, in the early 1950s, research was necessarily modest in its aims. It was constrained by the limitations of hardware, in particular inadequate memories and slow access to storage, and the unavailability of high-level programming languages. Even more crucially it could look to no assistance from the language experts. Syntax was a relatively neglected area of linguistic study and semantics was virtually ignored in the United States thanks to the behaviorist inclinations of the leading scholars. It was therefore not surprising that the first MT researchers turned initially to crude dictionary based approaches, i.e. predominantly word-for-word translation, and to the application of statistical methods. Warren Weaver himself, in the 1949 memorandum which effectively launched MT research, had advocated statistical methods alongside cryptography, which was soon recognized as being irrelevant, and more futuristically the investigation of universal interlinguas.” 8 Paper # 9 “The mechanization of translation has been one of humanity’s oldest dreams. In the twentieth century it has become a reality, in the form of computer programs capable of translating a wide variety of texts from one natural language into another. But, as ever, reality is not perfect. There are no ‘translating machines’ which, at the touch of a few buttons, can take any text in any language and produce a perfect translation in any other language without human intervention or assistance. That is an ideal for the distant future, if it is even achievable in principle, which many doubt.” 9 Paper # 10 “My intention is this paper is to provide some explanation for the difficulties encountered by present computer system which attempt to produce partial or complete translations of texts from one natural language into another. The emphasis will be on what can or cannot be achieved automatically at present. I shall not be concerned with the relative merits of different approaches to translation problems, for example, whether systems which switch between languages through some kind of inter-lingual representation are better than those which do not, or whether systems which employ methods from artificial intelligence are better than those which are use more familiar methods of computational linguistics, and I shall say virtually nothing about what developments may bring improvements in the future. Furthermore, I shall not be describing any particular system of whatever kind, past or present, or any methods of analysis or processing, or how dictionaries may be structured and compiled, whether monolingual or bilingual.” 10         Paper # 11 “Research on machine translation began in the 1950s and has largely remained to this day an activity which combines an intellectual challenge, a worthy motive and an eminently practical objective. The challenge is to produce translations as good as those made by human translators. The motive is the removal of language barriers which hinder scientific communication and international understanding. The practical objective is the development of economically viable systems to satisfy a growing demand for translations which cannot be met by traditional means. However, the realization has been disappointing in many respects; and, although recently optimism has been growing, operational machine translation systems are still far from satisfactory.” 11 Paper # 12 “Why should we be interested in using computers for translation at all? The first and probably most important reason is that there is just too much that needs to be translated, and that human translators cannot cope. A second reason is that on the whole technical materials are too boring for human translators, they do not like translating them, and so they look for help from computers. Thirdly, as far as large corporations are concerned, there is the major requirement that terminology is used consistently; they want terms to be translated in the same way every time. Computers are consistent, but human translators tend to seek variety; they do not like to repeat the same translation and this is no good for technical translation.” 12 Paper # 13 “When giving any general overview of the development and use of machine translation (MT) systems and translation tools, it is important to distinguish four basic types of translation demand. The first, and traditional one, is the demand for translations of a quality normally expected from human translators, i.e. translations of publishable quality – whether actually printed and sold, or whether distributed internally within a company or organization. The second basic demand is for translations at a somewhat lower level of quality (and particularly in style), which are intended for users who want to find out the essential content of a particular document – and generally, as quickly as possible.” 13 Paper # 14 “The traditional use of MT is the production of translations of technical documentation, e.g. for multinational companies. The system produces ‘raw’ output of variable quality which has then to be revised (post-edited) by translators. Post-editing can be expensive, and a successful cost-effective option is the pre-editing of input texts (typically with a controlled ‘regularized’ language) to minimize incorrect MT output and reduce editing processes. An important development of this usage, now expanding rapidly (with millions of translated pages every year), is the integration of translation with technical authoring, printing and publishing processes. translation of Web pages and of electronic mail, and there is great and increasing usage of MT services (often free), such as the well-known ‘Babelfish’ on AltaVista. At the same time, the Internet is providing the means for more rapid delivery of quality translations to individuals and to small companies, and a number of MT system vendors now offer translation services, usually ‘adding value’ by human post-editing.” 14 Paper # 15 “The workshops held by the European Association for Machine Translation (EAMT) in the past three years have been devoted to exploring the practicalities of using machine translation software and other computer-based translation tools in organizations. In these environments, translation has to be seen by management as a positive enhancement to the promotion and sales of company products. For those involved in the provision of company translations the cost-effective exploitation of the most appropriate translation software and the careful design of operational workflows are of crucial importance.” 15 Paper # 16 “From the beginning, researchers concentrated almost exclusively on the translation of scientific and technical documents, where the difficulties of cultural differences and variable contexts are less acute than in the more ‘culture-bound’ translation of literature, legal texts, and many areas of sociology. In science and technology, the demand for translation has almost always exceeded the capacity of the translation profession, and these demands are growing rapidly. In addition, the coming of the Internet has created a demand for immediate online translations, which human translators cannot possibly meet.” 16     Paper # 17 “A question frequently asked by those new to the field is whether machine translation (MT) has improved – in the last five years, or in the last ten years, or in the last twenty, etc. In many respects, the answer is quite easy. It is obvious that programs for automatic translation run much faster than in the past because computers are faster. Equally obvious is that text input is much easier than in the days of punched cards and paper tape, and that the output is much easier to read than in the days of almost illegible computer printouts all in upper case. MT systems are also becoming cheaper by the year, even by the month.” 17 Paper # 18 “It is possible to trace ideas about mechanizing translation processes back to the seventeenth century, but realistic possibilities came only in the 20th century. In the mid 1930s, a French-Armenian Georges Artsrouni and a Russian Petr Troyanskii applied for patents for ‘translating machines’. Of the two, Troyanskii’s was the more significant, proposing not only a method for an automatic bilingual dictionary, but also a scheme for coding interlingual grammatical roles (based on Esperanto) and an outline of how analysis and synthesis might work. However, Troyanskii’s ideas were not known about until the end of the 1950s. Before then, the computer had been born.” 18 Paper # 19 “This paper traces the history of efforts to develop computer programs (software) for the translation of natural languages, commonly and traditionally called ‘machine translation’ (MT), or, in non-English-speaking countries, ‘automatic translation’ (traduction automatique, avtomaticheskij perevod). Translators (particularly translators of literature) have generally regarded the task as misguided if not impossible. From the beginning, however, MT researchers have concentrated almost exclusively on the translation of scientific and technical documents, where the difficulties of cultural differences and variable contexts are less acute, but where (in particular) the demand for translation has almost always exceeded the capacity of the translation profession.” 19 Paper # 20 “The translation of natural languages by machine, first dreamt of in the seventeenth century, has become a reality in the late twentieth. Computer programs are producing translations – not perfect translations, for that is an ideal to which no human translator can aspire; nor translations of literary texts, for the subtleties and nuances of poetry are beyond computational analysis; but translations of technical manuals, scientific documents, commercial prospectuses, administrative memoranda, medical reports. Machine translation is not primarily an area of abstract intellectual inquiry but the application of computer and language sciences to the development of systems answering practical needs.” 20           SYNTHESIS Structurally, the introduction of the 20 papers can be divided into two distinct parts: the first part of the papers introduces the history of machine translation when it was still on its early stages of development, and just as importantly, the growing fondness of people to discover the importance of machine translation. The second section portrays the social implications of machine translation in the 20th and 21st century. The introduction of the 20 papers emphasizes the importance of the role of Information Technology in the 21st century machine translation, where the equipment and techniques that are being used to manage and process relevant information are critical towards the success of the translation process. The introductions tackle the importance of data and information in helping the management of a publications company, for example, in analyzing their present status in order to cut costs, increase profits, spot market trends faster, and communicate more effectively with customers. However, in order to achieve these goals, the data and information need to be relevant, accurate, complete and timely. Some of the authors of the papers also agree that in the 21st century, computer networks also play an integral part in the proper functioning of machine translations. Computer networks refer to a group of two or more computer systems linked together by communication channels for the purposes of sharing data and information in the process of machine translation. Through the efficient computer networking, the effective sharing of information and even expensive hardware is thus made possible along the process of machine translation. This in turn contributes to the improvement of the overall operating efficiency of the company coupled with an increase in productivity. For instance, Blekhman contends that the first attempt of a human expert towards machine translation would unlikely be very successful. This is partly because the human expert generally would find it very difficult to express the necessary knowledge and rules needed to decode the information. Much of it is almost subconscious, or appears so obvious that most human experts don’t even bother mentioning it. Knowledge acquisition for machine translation in the 21st century would involve a big area of research, with a wide variety of techniques that also need to be developed. Blekhman concludes that it is important for companies and organizations to first develop an initial prototype of machine translation based on the relevant information extracted from the human expert, then make some refinements on it based this time on the feedbacks coming from both the human expert and from the potential users of the machine translation. On the other hand, the introduction of Nagao’s paper typically symbolizes the machine translation perspective of the 20th century. Nagao contends that for many years data processing was the domain of machine translation in the 20th century, especially since information systems were able to guarantee that any changes to the database would be completed. This worked well for most publication companies at that time, and they could all even run on top of a database with a single client-server. However, Nagao noted that during the 20th century this machine translation model has also become more difficult to maintain. As the number of transactions grew in response to various machine translation services, a single database proved to be very inefficient. Also, most machine translation systems at that time consisted of a whole suite of programs operating together, as opposed to a strict client-server model where the single server could handle the machine translation process. Nevertheless, this type of machine translation model significantly bolstered the operations of most organizations upon successful implementation during the 20th century. In order to do refinements from this machine translation system, it is important for it to be created in such a way that it can easily be inspected and modified. The machine translation system should be able to explain its reasoning and also be able to answer questions regarding the solution process. The system updating must not involve rewriting a whole lot of codes. It must include simply the addition or deleting localized chunks of knowledge.           The introduction of the 20 papers’ overall theme tends to be socially conservative. The technical aspects of the introduction of the 20 papers are more likely conservative in nature. The real meanings of the introductions can be ascertained through the instant reflection of the absurd into the “real” which may or may not be further investigated in the rest of the paper. One may try to investigate for the purpose of discovering such ephemeral sequences, and partly with the concept of trying to mend the introductions in their own minds out of the disoriented components. Such an example is very common nowadays. The introductions of the 20 papers included automatist outputs and interpretations of machine translation. The introductions also reflected some of the author’s un-appreciation for literal terms given to machine translation and instead emphasized on the technical representations. Not only did the papers focus on technical representations, but also to the symbolisms present in unclear processes within machine translation. Because the introductions of the 20 papers seem to systematize our ideas regarding machine translation and the processes it presents, I really find some of the introductions of the 20 papers extremely difficult to comprehend. This idea however is hypothetical in nature. We must assume that when the authors of the 20 papers wrote their introductions, they based their principles towards freeing their collective states of mind through tapping the imaginative capabilities of their “unconscious minds”. For these authors, this principle of altering daily real situations toward one that integrates the machine translation concepts and the unconscious capabilities of their minds have manifested itself for the purpose of releasing the personal, cultural, political and social revolution, sometimes pertained to as a complete evolution of life in terms of independence and emotions. At various instances, I found myself coinciding with the beliefs of machine translation to enable the progress of wild economic and social developments. Because of the introduction’s technical quality, the definitions and messages can be viewed and taken in quickly, however they resist speedy interpretation and remain ambiguous. They speak to our subconscious and are expressions of our own subconscious. The introductions of the 20 papers possess this kind of dialect of clarity and mystery. During the process of writing the introductions of the 20 papers, the authors decided to take up and incorporate a wide variety of influences in respect with machine translation. They combined contradictory tendencies, and meld them together to their own personal style, in which intellect and feeling, consciousness and the subconscious, objective form and subjective intuition combined to form a single unity.  More distinctively the introductions of the 20 papers represent an art that reflects strong feelings and emotions. The introductions may not really be appealing to the reader’s eyes, but it has the capability to touch the reader through the portrayal of intense emotions and ideas very much reflective of machine translation.         Credit:ivythesis.typepad.com

Sample Thesis Paper The significance of the 20th and 21st centuries Machine Translation Papers

OBJECTIVES As a person with knowledge of the 20th and 21st centuries Machine Translation Papers , the author has always brought up to hi...

Contemporary fashion is post Fordist… Critically evaluate this statement

Fordism             The Fordist paradigm flourished in the context of particular market, technological, organizational and employment characteristics (Sabel 1982; Piore and Sabel 1984; Wood 1989). In order to sustain mass production, companies bestowed large investments in dedicated plant and equipment. In order for the mass produced goods to be profitable, the markets for mass produced products had to be both large and have a stable pattern of demand which allowed them to absorb high volumes of standardized products over time. The large-scale organization, utilizing Fordist methods of work design and managed through an adversarial industrial relations system, was the dominant organizational form. Technology was used as a means to enable the management to closely control the organization Information and Communications Technologies (ICTs) were used as a means to extend the management’s control to up till then unreachable areas of organizational activity and over organizational members who, in the past had exercised skill and enjoyed a degree of autonomy in the execution of their work tasks.   The Fall of the Fordist Approach             Theorists such as Piore and Sabel (1984); Lash and Urry (1987) and Hall and Jaques (1989); and Harvey (1989), believed that Fordist approach to production and consumption started to crumble in the 1970s. It has been argued that as large organizations competed, the demand mass produced consumer goods declined. The home market failed to absorb further increases in output. As a solution to this problem, organizations explored markets outside their homeland. Organizations from industrialized countries sought markets in both developed and developing countries. However, these efforts to engage in global competition failed to restore productive efficiency. During those times, small and medium sized organizations gained prominence. These organizations did not follow the Fordist approached. Rather they took advantage of the flexible capabilities and characteristics of ICTs to cut cost of producing customized – as opposed to mass market – goods and services.             A new phenomenon occurred. Organizations started to respond to a new set of new global product and technological conditions. Product markets increasingly became unstable, pushing organizations to seek new technological opportunities to generate product and process innovations which will meet the new fragmented pattern of demand. he organisational forms associated with the pursuit of this objective are typically small-scale producers linked to each other and to larger producers who they supply in tightly knit industrial networks. Such networks embody what has been termed the principle of ‘flexible specialization’.               Flexible Specialization is defined as a strategy of permanent innovation: accommodation to ceaseless change, rather than an effort to control it. This strategy is based on flexible equipment; skilled workers; and the creation, through politics, of an industrial community that restricts the forms of competition to those favoring innovation (Piore and Sabel 1984 cited in Mcloughlin 1999). As large organizations started to be confronted with the changes in technology and demands, they began to exploit new technological innovations following the lead of small and medium sized organizations. As a result, similar organizational forms to those of their smaller counterparts have been adopted. Increasingly, large ‘Fordist Bureaucracies’ are being transformed through downsizing and deleyaring of managerial structures; the re-skilling of workers through team-based systems which increase autonomy and empowerment; the ‘democratization’ of work through involvement and participation; and the development of networked forms of intra-and inter-organizational relationships. The outcome is a new Post-Fordist model of organization based, not on the principle of control, but rather that of ‘flexibility’. Clegg (1989), compared the characteristics of Fordist and Post-Fordist organizations: <ul style="margin-top: 0in; margin-bottom: 0in" type="disc"> <li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%">Fordist organizations were rigid while Post-Fordist flexible</li> <li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%">Fordist organizations were premised on technological determinism while Post-Fordist on the technological choices made possible through ‘de-dedicated’ microelectronic equipment</li> <li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%">Fordist organiztaions have jobs that were highly differentiated, demarcated and de-skilled while Post-Fordist ones have jobs that are highly de-differentiated, de-demarcated and multi-skilled (cited in Mcloughlin 1999 p. 54)</li> </ul>       Post Fordism             The phenomenon labeled either post-industrial or post-Fordist can be divided into three groups. The first comprises technological advances and changes in economic structure – these include the shift from manufacturing to services, the emergence of a global economy and the information technology/hyper-automation in industry. The second embraces wider social and cultural shifts; these include the intensification of consumers, the ambiguous rise of so-called post materialism and the replacement of class-determined life chances by individualized lifestyles as the primary source of social identity. The third group includes intermediate phenomena, such as changes in the structure of organizations and the pattern of employment, which link work, or the economy, and life or society (Jucapec and Garrick 2000).   From Mass Production to Mass Customization             The Fordist era was characterized by mass production of goods and services. The mass production model of the industrial economy according to Davis (1996) held that an organization can achieve either low-cost, standardized goods or services or high-quality, customized ones, but not both simultaneously (p. 15).               In the Post-Fordist era, mass customization became popular. Unlike mass production that focused on mass producing goods and services but failed to give emphasis on quality, mass customization has demonstrated that an organization can simultaneously mass produce, distribute, and deliver customized goods and services. According to Duray (2002) the practice of mass customization does not fit the mindset associated with conventional production and manufacturing methods. Historically, companies chose to produce either customized, crafted products or mass produced, standardized products. This traditional practice means that customized products are made using low volume production processes that cope well with a high variety of products. Similarly, mass production process is chosen for making standardized products in a high volume, low cost environment. Davis (1987) defines mass customization as a one-of-a-kind product manufactured on a large scale. Customers are able to purchase a customized product for the cost of a mass produced item. Mass customization combines customization and mass production offering unique products in a mass produced, low cost, high volume production environment.               Mass customization according to Pine (1993) is the mass production of individually customized goods and services. Mass production systems declined in usage and popularity because it failed to satisfy both the manufacturer and the consumers in the light of the changing demands and intense competition. Mass customization systems may achieve both manufacturer and consumer satisfaction, providing a low-cost customized product. In order for a mass customization system to succeed it is important that advanced technology is applied such as the flexible manufacturing system, computer- integrated manufacturing, computer-aided design, and advanced computer technology. Using these technologies in the practice of mass customization will shorten product-life and development cycles as well as allowing manufacturers to respond more quickly and flexibly to changing consumptive drives. Finally, consumers will have access to a variety of relatively low cost, high-quality, customized products while manufacturers can reduce excess inventory and markdowns.   The Apparel Industry in the Post-Fordist Era             Labor-intensive apparel industries require workers for every process. Traditionally, apparel manufacturers have used the bundle system, a method of passing the pieces of the partially finished garments form one set of laborers to the next, restricted by rigid hierarchical divisions. However, rapid dynamics of consumer desires in the fashion market coupled with the global competitiveness of low-wage-rate countries has diminished the effectiveness of this system. By focusing on producing the maximum number of units in a given period of time, the bundle system has caused problems that include excess inventory, a long lead time, and low quality (Black and Chen 1995). Thus, apparel manufacturers have started to try Just-in-Time (JIT), Quick Response (QR) and other concepts in marketing and production that aim to eliminate excess inventory, long lead time, and low quality in traditional marketing systems such as mass production (Black and Chen 1995).             Organizations today aim to balance quantity and quality. Organizations are looking for different strategies to produce high quality goods and services in a timely and efficient manner. Mass customization, together with other manufacturing strategies are being employed by organizations around the world in order to reach more markets and to ensure that their products are of superior quality.             In the previous decades, several manufacturing and production strategies and techniques have emerged. In this section, some of these techniques will be discussed.   1. Just-in-Time (JIT)             JIT can be considered as a philosophy for waste reduction and continuous improvement, a method which to control and reduce inventory, a way of increasing throughput, and a production scheduling system (Lowson 2002). In manufacturing, JIT is essentially a management philosophy where the primary objective is to achieve zero or minimum levels of inventory. The advantages of JIT include elimination of waste, enhanced product quality, improved employee morale and increased customer satisfaction (Reddy, 1994).             JIT is a shop floor-control tool that allows the scheduling of inventory movement through the shop floor with the use of a Kanban, a materials movement tracking device. The Kanban can take the form of a card, a box, or a marked off area on the floor. These Kanbans are used as an authorization to move materials or to produce new product. JIT also focuses on the basic principle of receiving production parts as neede, rather than building up inventories of these components. Using the JIT production planning approach, managers reduce inventory to a minimum level, keeping on hand only the amount needed in production until the next order arrives. One of the most important aspects of the JIT process is cooperation. Just-in-Time thrives on open, honest communication and trust among all people involved in the process. Employees must work together to improve the product and the process and they must he given incentives to do so. Management must be open minded and willing to help in the change. Just-in-time is a philosophy that stresses training, cooperation and preparedness to eliminate waste. When undertaking this philosophy, companies need to look internally to improve themselves (Epps, 1995).               Quality is the most important part of any product. If a product is of poor quality, it will have a short life cycle. There is a cost involved. The cost of poor quality can be defined as the sum of all costs that would disappear if there were no quality problems. Examples of poor quality costs include scrap and rework, supplier corrective action, downgraded end product, warranty costs, loss of future sales, recall costs, and returned costs. JIT often is wrongly thought of as a way to decrease inventories alone. While the reduction of inventories is a major benefit of the JIT process, the increased product quality is the major benefit. This occurs as the result of the philosophy of JIT (Epps, 1995). 2. Agile Manufacturing             Agile manufacturing was initially an apparel industry concept, but essential in any responsive operations system. Agile operations strategies grew out of the inability of Japanese manufacturing techniques to cope with a movement beyond variety to mass customization and personalization. The agile manufacturer aims to produce highly customized products at a cost comparable with mass production and within short lead times. Combined with QR, the resultant tailoring of products to demand includes a higher element of service and thus greater added value. A flexible workforce, structure and production technologies are all contained within a learning culture. Externally, the concepts of vertical integration and long-term partnerships are replaced with short-term, flexible contracts and horizontal outsourcing. These allow rapid response through an expansive system of communication networks (Lowson 2002). 3. Quick Response             Quick Response (QR), a program developed by textile and apparel manufacturers and retailers around 1985 as a way to cope with problems challenging the apparel industry, uses a combination of strategies to reduce inventory levels, improve merchandise quality, increase worker productivity, increase stock turnover, and reduce merchandise markdowns and inventory costs. Fundamentally, QR is a way to gather information about consumer preferences and to reflect them in production decisions in a timely manner. To comply with consumers’ needs, QR relies on sales data. Through computerized information systems, sales data are transmitted and transformed as useful information that reveals consumers’ preferences and reactions, and decisions are then made promptly to respond to what consumers want (Kang and Sullivan, 1999).             The QR strategy links all activity to real time demand. It is customized by the individual retailer or manufacturer and is particularly suited to small and medium-sized firms. It is designed to be context specific and to be contingent upon the setting. Quick Response as an operations strategy is designed to overcome the impact of seasonality in operations. 4. Strategic Postponement             Postponement is an operations strategy that aims at delaying activities until the exact attributes of demand can be identified. Postponement can take three forms: Time – delaying activities until orders are received Place – delaying the movement of goods until orders are received Form – delaying activities that determine final form of a good until demand is known.     Case Studies             In this section, some examples of organizations that employ different Post-Fordist approaches to productions and manufacturing will be presented. 1. United Colors of Benetton             United Colors of Benetton is a popular Italian fashion retailer that is present in 120 countries around the world (Benetton, Annual Report 2007).             The goal of Benetton is to expand its sales network while at the same time minimize the cost and increase the sales of its products. In order to achieve this goal, the company needs to achieve a higher degree of flexibility. In order to achieve the company’s goals and to make sure that the products that the company produced are what the customers needed, Benetton employs a Quick Response strategy. Quick Response entails a high degree of flexibility in production and decision making. The company also employs Strategic Postponement and the products that they produced are Standardized. Strategic postponement enables Benetton to start the manufacturing process and then delay the process until customer demands and requirements (such as color, style and fit) are determined. 2. Zara             Zara is one of the most notable fashion stores in the world. Notable for its products and notable for its excellent supply chain management. The first Zara clothing store opened in 1975 in Spain as a small retailer selling men’s and women’s clothing. Since then Zara chains have grown into retailing giants with almost 1000 stores worldwide and an impressive sales record. The success of Zara is partly to do with the appeal of its men’s and women’s and children’s fashions and accessories that display unique style but at real world prices. But it is also partly as a result of their collaborative, digital networks that link Zara with its suppliers and customers. These advances have enabled Zara to deliver tailored products quickly and reliably, creating what the company terms a ‘value net’ for all the firms in the supply network (Zara, Annual Report 2007).             Zara, a Spanish fashion retailer is famous for its efficient and effective supply chain. Zara employs Agile Manufacturing. The manufacturing at Zara starts at its retail stores which acts as the eyes and ears of the company. Instead of relying solely on electronically collected data, Zara utilizes word of mouth information to understand its customers and to determined their needs, wants and requirements. The manufacturing process of Zara is so agile it can produce high end fashionable clothes in just two weeks. Products that re not selling well are quickly pulled and popular items are quickly replenished. Zara hires young designers and empowers them to make quick decisions.             The supply chain starts from the retail stores and customers, the use and flow of information enables Zara to convert the high degree of information into opportunity. Agile manufacturing is present from the acquirement of customer feedbacks. Customer feedbacks that are gathered in the stores are sent to the company’s Design Team. The design team sends the information to the cutting department and fabric department to ensure the right pattern in produced. Zara uses lean manufacturing in specialized factories while processes such as cutting, stitching, and dying are standardized.   Conclusion             From the discussion above, I can say that the Fordist era of production and manufacturing is over and that the Apparel or Fashion industry is in the Post-Fordist era. The Fordist paradigm lost its popularity because of different factors and changes in demands, competition, and in technology. The concept of mass production is now replaced with mass customization and other concepts that aim to achieve flexibility, specialization, and quality. Mass customization became popular because it offered companies with the capabilities to mass produce customized and high quality products in a timely manner. Moreover, other manufacturing and production concepts have emerged. Notable among these are Just-in-Time manufacturing and Agile manufacturing.       References   Annual Report 2007, Inditex, viewed 29 October, 2008, <http://www.inditex.com/en/shareholders_and_investors/investor_relations/annual_reports>   Annual Report 2007, United Colors of Benetton, viewed 29 October, 2008,  <http://media.corporate-ir.net/media_files/irol/11/114079/reports/AnnualReport07_080331.pdf>   Black, J T and Chen, J C 1995, ‘The Role of Decouplers in JIT Pull Apparel Cells’, International Journal of Clothing and Technology, vol. 7, no. 1, pp. 17-35   Clegg, S R 1989, Frameworks of Power, Sage, London.   Davis, S 1996, Future Perfect, Addison Wesley, Reading MA.   Duray, R 2002, ‘Mass Customization’, in P M Swamidass (ed.), Innovations in Competitive Manufacturing (pp.275-282), AMACOM, New York.   Epps, R 1995, ‘Just-in-Time Inventory Management: Implementation of a Successful Program’, Review of Business, vol. 17, no. 1, pp. 40+.   Hall, S and Jaques, M 1989, New Times: The Changing Face of Politics in the 1990s, Lawrence & Wishart, London.   Harvey, D 1989, The Condition of Post-Modernity, Blackwell, Oxford.   Jakupec, V and Garrick J (eds.) 2000, Flexible Learning, Human Resource, and Organisational Development: Putting Theory to Work, Routledge, London.   Kang, J K & P Sullivan 1999, ‘Quick Response Adoption in the Apparel Manufacturing Industry: Competitive Advantage of Innovation’, Journal of Small Business Management, vol. 37, no. 1, p. 1.   Lowson, R 2002, Strategic Operations Management: The New Competitive Advantage, Routledge, New York.   Mcloughlin, I 1999, Creative Technological Change: The Shaping of Technology and Organisations, Routledge, London.   Piore, M J and Sabel, C F 1984, The Second Industrial Divide: Possibilities for Prosperity, Basic Books, New York.   Lash, S and Urry J 1987, The End of Organized Capitalism, Polity Press, Cambridge.   Reddy, A 1994, Total Quality Marketing: The Key to Regaining Market Shares, Quorum Books, Westport CT. Sabel, C F 1982, Work and Politics: The Division of Labour in Industry, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.   Wood, S 1989, The Transformation of Work?, Unwin Hyman, London.   Credit:ivythesis.typepad.com

Contemporary fashion is post Fordist… Critically evaluate this statement

Fordism The Fordist paradigm flourished in the context of particular market, technological, organizational and employment ch...

The vital contribution of developing a positive attitude to Information and Communications Technology or ICT at the same time extend, the learning of children in the areas of National Curriculum

How do the Foundation Subjects Enhance and Extend Children’s Learning Experiences in Relation to the Aims of the National Curriculum? Introduction             The school curriculum is composed of all learning and other experiences, where in each school provides for its pupils. The said aspect is included in the National Curriculum, religious education, collective worship, sex education as well as careers education. In more extensive curriculum, the National Curriculum secures that for all pupils irrespective of the social background, culture, race, gender, differences in inability as well as disabilities, the right to a diversity of areas of learning. Thus, it make sure that every young person to develops the knowledge, understanding, skills as well as attitudes that are important in achieving their self-fulfillment as well as development s active and responsible citizens (TeacherNet 2007).             Thus, the National Curriculum core and foundation subjects are governed by different statutory programmes of study that is set out in extensive terms where in the knowledge, skills as well as learning should be covered in the subject in the different key stages (TeacherNet 2007).             This paper will focus on the vital contribution of developing a positive attitude to Information and Communications Technology or ICT, together with the different skills that are needed to be acquired in order to use the said tools in effective manner in order to improve, at the same time extend, the learning of children in the areas of National Curriculum, at the same time help them to be prepared on the life in the 21st century (Cheam Park Farm Infants School n.d.). Part 1 – The National Curriculum             The main goals or aims of the National Curriculum are to provide different opportunities for all of the pupils in order to learn as well as achieve. At the same time, it also helps to ensure the promotion of the spiritual, moral, social and cultural development of pupil, and prepare them for different opportunities, responsibilities as well as experience of life (TeacherNet 2007; Elston 2007, p. 16). Thus, the different foundation subject such as English, mathematics, science, design and technology, ICT, History, Geography, Modern Foreign Languages, Art and Design, Music, Physical Education and Citizenship were all included in the curriculum in order to meet or achieve all of the mentioned goals. Information Communication Technology             The important aspect that must be considered is to tackle how the ICT curriculum can contribute to the achievement of the aims of NC, at the same time how it will reflect on the values. There are different factors that must be considered in analyzing the importance and contribution of ICT in the entire achievement of NC’s goals.             Computer technology has been available within the schools for many years; it can be rooted from the days of the Acorn computers during 1980s. But it was not until 1988, due to the Education Reform Act, that a formal curriculum was defined for each subject, including Information Technology or IT (Elston 2007, p. 14).             There is no doubt that ICT can help NC to achieve the first goal, and that is to give different opportunities for the entire students to learn and achieve. This is because of the current changes and trends in the world, where in the world is becoming dependent on the information. The increasing use of technology in different parts of the society can help to make the confident, creative and productive use of ICT as an essential skill for life. This is because of the fact that ICT capability includes not only the mastery of technical skills and techniques, but also pertains on the application of the said skills decisively, safely as well as responsibility in the process of daily life and employment (National Curriculum 2008). Thus, it shows that ICT is a crucial curriculum in the current time, in order to ensure the competitive advantage of each and every people. At the same time, ICT can help each and every student or pupil, regardless of his or her status in the society and physical and mental capability to have an access to new technologies that will enable him or her to learn more about the positive impact of technology in life. Aside from that it can also help teachers and instructors to focus on the learning process of their students by applying different technologies that will aid their learning approach such as the application or use of electronic whiteboard and other presentation hardware and software. It will also help to maintain interesting teaching session. This is because of the fact that including the ICT curriculum in NC enables the teachers and school administration to take the challenge of searching and applying innovations in their learning process, in order to maintain the smooth flow of information inside and out the school. By the process of informing and training the students regarding the usage and application of ICT in their daily life, it will give them the ideas regarding what is going on in the real world. Thus, they can apply their learning outcomes in the latter part of their education, particularly in the college level, where in there is an ongoing intense dependency over technology.             On the other hand, it had been mentioned that NC focuses on promoting Spiritual, Moral, Social and Cultural or SMSC values in schools. It is important to consider that SMSC is not confined to one particular subject or area of study in curriculum; however collective worship is doing an important contribution. It can be developed through all of the subjects and the degree of contribution will be dependent on the perception of the functions of the subject beyond the teaching of its basic material and upon the approaches adopted by the teachers and pupils (Cairns & Gardner 2000, p. 76). In the case of ICT, because of its connection with the aspect of communication, and application of modern technology, it can be said that curriculum focuses on the aspect of social values.             It is important to consider that ICT capability is vital in the process of participation and engagement in the modern society. Mavers & Lakin (2001) stated that going digital showcases many advantages. First is that it enables immediacy of access, where in images can be brought into action as quickly as required and can be shown on the computer monitor, thus can be discussed as a whole. This can help to develop the self-esteem of the students, at the same time, contribute to their ability to become involved in the process of decision-making during different significant moments in their learning. In addition, making the said images available to the parents and guardians, in electronic or printout manner can have a considerable value for home-school links as well as for the creation of electronic portfolios for record keeping. In general, ICT can help to promote communication, collaboration, positive social value as well as self-esteem in an exciting and dynamic way (Monteith 2004, p. 105).             At the same time, ICT can also be used in order to find, develop, analyze and present different information, model situation and solve different problems. It also helps to enable the rapid and vast opportunity to access different ideas and experiences from vast range of people, communities and cultures, thus allowing the pupils or students to collaborate and exchange information on the wide scale. This is because of the application of different computer technology, primarily the Internet. Thus, it can be considered as a influential force for change in the society and citizens must have an understanding the regarding the issues about social, ethical, legal and economic implications of its use and application, together with the issue of how ICT can be used in safe and responsible manner (National Curriculum 2008). That’s why, in this case, the issue regarding moral will enter the picture. Part 2 – Context of Placement and Planning             The goals and objectives of the National Curriculum is considered as an important guidelines for teachers in order to ensure that all of the activities and lessons that he or she is preparing for the entire learning process. This is because of the fact that the National Curriculum focuses on the fact that education is an influential factor that reflects the values of society as well as the kind of society that wanted to be achieved. Thus, it focuses on the process of recognizing the variety of common purposes, values and aims that will support the different school curriculum and the work of schools (National Curriculum 2008).             ICT plays a very important tool in my overall teaching approach. Application of ICT can help me to promote and contribute to the success of NC and school curriculum by focusing on offering opportunities and growth as well as social values for the my students.             Primarily, the applications of ICT enable me to use different technologies that will capture and maintain the attention of my student. At the same time it helps me to have a strong connection with my students. With the support of the school, by implementing different new technologies inside the school, it had helped me to focus on giving quality and updated information towards my students.             First is that the goal of NC focuses on giving or providing the students with the access to the different opportunities for all of the pupils to learn at the same time achieve. In that case, ICT had helped me to offer my students a wide variety of online sources for their lessons. This is with the advent and help of the Internet. My students had been able to learn more, not only regarding the technology, but also regarding the story, evolution, past and present of a specific body of knowledge. In that case, it enables the student to have the control regarding the knowledge or areas that they want to explore. At the same time, it helps them to learn, while they are enjoying it.             On the other hand, it is important to consider that the world today is facing major change, that had affected all of the industry and field, and particularly the sector of education, and that is the technology dependency. That is why, by the help of ICT in the leaning process, it enables me to give my students, the basic knowledge regarding the said important subject. This is important because, it can be observed that more and more organizations or the future employers of my students are focusing on the importance of IT in their overall performance, process and system. As a result, it enables the students to see the vitality and application of ICT in their everyday life.                On the other hand, it is important to take note that ICT cannot only help in terms of learning process regarding the different academic and theory-based subject, but it also play an important role in the different values, primarily social and moral. This is because of the fact that ICT enables my student to connect to different people from different parts of the globe, therefore enables them to encounter different culture, and later on understand them. The said aspect is important because it enables them to have a virtual social life which enables them to gain friendship with other people that help them to gain self-esteem. Aside from that, it also enables the student to share their experiences, knowledge and story with other people who have the same and opposite perspective as they have. Later on, it can help the students to reflect on their attitudes, behavior and culture with their online friends. This can help the students to have a wider view or perspective regarding the world. The said aspect is important in my career in a Jewish State aided school in London. It can be seen that the student have different cultures. Aside from that, ICT can also help me to have a direct contact or relationship with the parents, primarily those parents who do not have much time for their children, with the help of modern technology, primarily e-mail, at the same time, enabling the student and the parents to have a strong bond or connection.             On the other hand, ICT can help to focus on the goal of NC to promote SCMC values. This is important because of the growing moral issues that are related to the Internet, the most important aspect of ICT. By applying the ICT curriculum, students are also becoming aware of the different netiquette or the standards of how to act, communicate and threat other people in the cyberspace. By doing this, it enables the students to gain more of the moral values, because, they can develop good and proper online behavior, that can be reflective in their real physical aspect. Thus, it also helps them to gain discipline by focusing on the different contents that are only suitable for their age. The said aspect is important, especially today, where in different people can upload and download different media and application in the Internet that can affect the mentality of children. The said aspect is important because of the fact that ICT acts is considered as a controlling element for change in the entire society, thus, it will be important for the people to know and understand the social, ethical, legal as well as economic connotation of its application and use that focuses on how t use ICT in safe and accountable manner. At the same time, increasing the capability in the usage of ICT in order to support initiative and independent learning, as the pupil are able to make informed judgments regarding when and where to use ICT in order to enhance their learning, and the quality of their work (National Curriculum 2008). Part 3 – Personal Application             It is important to consider that ICT can help the process of reading, writing, understanding and communication. Thus, it enables ICT to become not only contributes in achieving the goals of NC, but it is considered as a core activity in supporting, enhancing and developing NC, school curriculum as well as the aspect of SMSC.             In order to develop the writing skills of my student, I decided to give them a project that will help them to express their emotions, feelings and opinions. At the same time, in order to ensure that ICT is applied in the project, I instructed them to use word processing software to encode their piece and then upload it in the class webblog. A webblog or simply blog, is a chronological publication of online journal or posting to a Web site. It can include text, image, and links to video files, links to audio files or even link to other Websites (Sweeney 2006, p. 317). I asked my student to choose what topic they want and the writing style that they want to apply, if they want to write a letter for their love ones or themselves, it will also be acceptable. With the support of modern technology, I asked my student to look for the different current events and issues that are going on in the world, in order for them to look for the topic that they want to tackle. Aside from that, asked them to look for different images or pictures that will represent their piece.             I also made it clear, that I will not be the only one to judge their works, but the whole class. Each and everyone in the class will upload their work not more than 1000 words piece or work in the class weblog, with the corresponding image and other design that can help their piece to be noticed. After all of the articles or pieces were uploaded, I asked them to rate each of the piece in the class weblog, and the result of the voting activity will be one of the basis of grading their works.             As a result, each and everyone exert much effort in researching for topics that can capture the attention and heart of the reader. This is by surfing the Internet, and socializing with their virtual friends, as well as visiting cyber-society. At the same time, it also helps them to search for designs that will be suitable for their piece. There are some students who even created their own image, by using imaging software, primarily paint. Some even consulted their own brother and sisters regarding the combination of colors and images. At the same time, they focus on structuring their piece, in creative, alive and strong manner, because the voting activity awakens their competitive side. That’s why, it can be said that ICT is considered as a must in terms of achieving the overall goals of N as well as school curriculum, because it enables the students to have a wide range of knowledge and information. However, it is important to consider that all of the information that must be accessed or retrieved by the students is filtered, or those contents that are suitable for their age. At the same time, it also enables them to have a contact or communication to other people and community in other part of the world in order to know their perspective regarding their chosen subject or topic.             Above all, ICT also helps to ensure moral and social values that are very important goal of NC. This can be seen on how my students react, judge and rate the other works of their classmate. They have tried to use words that will not hurt the feeling of other, at the same time try to improve the self-esteem of their classmate by giving advice regarding on what to improve. Aside from that, they also learned to respect the opinion, emotions and perspective of other people, by not imposing any negative or violent reaction. They have tried to focus on the differences of their culture, behavior and beliefs. In that case, the students have learned the importance of respect, because of their prior experiences in the cyberspace. Part 4 – Conclusion             Overall, it can be said that ICT can help NC to achieve its goals in providing the student the access to learning processes, at the same time, enabling them to acquire different social and moral values towards the students. It is important to consider that it can help the student to get connected to different information and knowledge resources, at the same time, enables them to communicate with the different beliefs, behaviors and cultures in the world. Thus, help to enhance and extend the learning of the children in the different areas of the National Curriculum. Above all, it can help them to be prepared for the life in 21st century (Cheam Park Farm Infants School n.d.).     References   Cains, J, Gardner, R & Lawton, D 2000, Values and the Curriculum, Routledge   Cheam Park Farm Infants School, Find Out About Our Curriculum, viewed 24 January 2009, <http://www.cpfinfants.ik.org/p_Find_out_about_our_curric ulum.ikml>   Elston, C 2007, Using ICT in the Primary School, Paul Chapman Publishing   Kennewell, S, Parkinson, J & Tanner, H 2000, Developing the ICT Capable School, Routledge   Monteith, M 2004, ICT for Curriculum Enhancement, Intellect Books   National Curriculum 2008, Information and Communication Technology Key Stage 3, viewed 24 January 2009, < http://curriculum.qca.org.uk/key-stages-3-and-4/subjects/ict/keystage3/index.aspx?return=/key-stages-3-and-4/subjects/index.aspx>   SMS Online 2009, Teachers and SMSC Online, viewed 24 January 2009, < http://www.smsc.org.uk/users/teachers.htm >   Sweeney, S 2006, 101 Ways to Promote Your Website: Filled with Proven Internet Marketing Tips, Tools, Techniques, and Resources to Increase Your Web Site Traffic, Maximum Press   TeacherNet 2007, National Curriculum, viewed 24 January 2009, <http://www.teachernet.gov.uk/management/atoz/n/nationalcurriculum/> Credit:ivythesis.typepad.com

The vital contribution of developing a positive attitude to Information and Communications Technology or ICT at the same time extend, the learning of children in the areas of National Curriculum

How do the Foundation Subjects Enhance and Extend Children’s Learning Experiences in Relation to the Aims of the National Curriculum? In...

Thesis Chapters 1-3 on Organizational Change on Managerial Roles in Petroleum Development of Oman (PDO)

Moreover the planned approach initiates form inside the organization to deal with environmental demands and the change process is sequential (Burnes, 1996). Whereas emergent change stems from continuous improvement and learning organization theory. This approach initiates opportunity in ongoing activity within the organization and it is seen as driven by “bottom-up” process (Burnes, 1996). However the two approaches appear to have some striking similarities (Burnes, 1996). The distinction between them is not cut-off (Senior, 2002) and both approaches share common difficulties. The planned change assumes organization that operates in stable environment (Burnes, 1996). It heavily focuses on management view or the  “single view” (Senior, 2002). On the other hand, the emergent approach assumes organization that operates in turbulent environment. This approach has a little control over its environment,(Fig. 2). The PDO corporate-transformation scale can be seen as a planned change because the company set is “top-down” and the oil environment is fairly stable environment. According to Deal and Kennedy (cited in Mullins, 1996) the oil companies such as PDO can be described as a “Bet-your-company culture” which is described by high risk and slow feedback culture. As the company invests millions in large-scale project, it takes a long-time for action and decision. As a result the decision making tend to be top-down similar as described by Handy (1979) role culture. However, one cannot distinguish the difference between planned and emergent changes. In many respects both approaches can be equally valid and applied to different organization circumstances.  The next step is to analyze the change management.           Strategies of Organisational Change There are two basic strategies to facilitate change in organizations: the “transition” and “transformation” strategies (Levy & Merry, 1986). The first is widely known and is more utilized because it is goal-oriented. In this strategy, the change efforts are focused on managing the transition from a present state into a new state that is already known. The second, on the other hand, which is less known and less developed, focuses on transformation processes. The transformation strategy is a process-oriented strategy in which the main efforts for change are focused on consciousness raising and processes like understanding present. Ackerman (1983) states that “In situations where clients have a clear future state in mind, like reorganization…the transition management process is used to achieve or implement that desired state. Its focus is over a set period of time, at the end of which the ‘future’ becomes the ‘present’ way of operating”. The transition strategy takes into account human as well as formal structural needs of the system as the implementation proceeds. The change process has a greater emphasis on the entire system (levy & Merry, 1986). The transition strategy is future-oriented for it only focuses on practical issues related to implementing the desired state. This strategy is analytical, rational, and pragmatic in nature. Its primary goal is to know the impact of the future state on the present state, and deducing what action steps need to be taken. On the other hand, the words “spirit,” “spirituality,” and “energy” are key elements in describing organizational transformation (Levy & Merry, 1986). Hawley (1983) describes organizational transformation as follows a basic change in the organization energy.” Kiefer and Stroh (1984) also claim that the main emphasis of the transformation strategy is on the organization’s purpose and vision, and the alignment of members with these elements. A vision created out of the organization’s and individuals’ needs tends to “pull” the organization toward its fulfillment. Therefore, the main components of the transformation strategy are not inclined to forms nor to structures. On the contrary, they are abstract, fluid, and dynamic elements that are hard to define and deal with. These elements are the organization unconsciousness, energy, spirit, spirituality, mission, purpose, vision, belief systems, worldview, myths, symbols, paradigm, and state of being. According to Levy and Merry (1986), the transition and transformation strategies are not mutually exclusive. In any organizational change, they are used as mixed strategies or one after the other, depending on the organization situation, the manager, or the consultant. But because of their different methods and approaches, transformation strategies are more useful for facilitating the first phases of the change process, while transition strategy is more useful for facilitating the later phases of the process.           Limitation of Organisational Change           Mintzberg Five Configuration According to Henry Mintzberg, an organization’s structure is largely determined by the variety one finds in its environment. For Mintzberg, environmental variety is determined by both environmental complexity and the pace of change. As seen in Table 4, there are four types of organizational form, which are associated with four combinations of complexity and change. Table 4. Environmental Determinants of Organizational Structures     In explaining each of the four organizational forms, Mintzberg defines five basic organizational subunits.   Figure 3. Five Basic Organizational Subunits                 In these subunits, the strategic apex is represented by the Board of Directors and Chief Executives. The techno structure on the other hand is represented by those involved in Strategic Planning, Personnel Training, Operations Research and Systems Analysis and Design. The Support Staff is composed of the Legal Counsel, Public Relations Officers, Payroll and Mailroom Clerks, and Cafeteria Workers. The Middle Line consists of the VP Operations, VP Marketing, Plant Managers and Sales Managers. Finally, the Operating Core involves Purchasing Agents, Machine Operators, Assemblers, Sales Persons and Shippers (Beshears, 2003).    Each of the four organizational forms in Mintzberg’s scheme depends on fundamentally different mechanisms for coordination. According to Mintzberg (1979), the glue holding organisational structure together involves mutual adjustment, direct supervision, standardisation of work processes, standardization of work outputs, standardisation of skills and standardisation of norms. Figure 4 illustrates the basic mechanisms of coordination Mutual adjustment is the co-ordination of work by process of informal communication. Here, the control of work rests in the hands of the ‘doers’. The success in mutual adjustment depends on groups/teams of specialists adapting to each other along an uncharted route. In direct supervision, the organization outgrows its simplest state. Co-ordination is practiced by taking responsibility for the work of others. On the other hand, the standardization of work processes is needed when the content of work is specified for in the program. Here, the reutilization and bureaucratization of processes is commonplace in business. Reutilization and bureaucratization may reduce opportunities for independent action and creative expression but for those delivering and those receiving the results of reutilization the benefits are substantial in every aspect of life. Skills and knowledge are standardised through education and training before or after joining the firm. Where an organisation invests in systematic training not only policies, rules and values are being conveyed but also standard ways in which skill should be applied. Furthermore, work results can be specified by performance dimensions, conversion ratios, profitability and cost indicators, time. Therefore, unlike the skills and knowledge, the result can be standardised. Figure 4.     Mintzberg makes use of his own classification of organizational types (Mintzberg & Quinn, 1988): the Simple Structure, Machine Bureaucracy, Divisionalized Form, Professional Bureaucracy and Adhocracy (see Fig. 5).             An organization with a simple structure does not have an elaborate, formal arrangement of reporting relationships (Mintzberg & Quinn, 1988). Because of its “structure” and coordination/control, it enables the organization to respond quickly to environmental demands. As a result, work relationships are more fluid and there is a small, centrist management hierarchy. Moreover, there are few functional specialists. People doing core operational tasks are often interchangeable. The division of labor is looser with people carrying out multiple roles. Finally, there is less role differentiation. The Machine Bureaucracy is exemplified by large structures such as  an airline or a hotel chain. These structures are managed as integrated, regulated systems which make use of specialised, routinised methods and tasks, formal operating procedures governed by well defined rules and regulations and the formal organisational communication systems are well-developed to ensure communication flow between operational units (Mintzberg, 1979). In addition, tasks are grouped on functional lines and the decision making powers are more centralised. As stated earlier, the standardization of skills and values is one of the glues that bind a Professional Bureaucracy together. It is typified by a collegiate of academics in a university, a practice of doctors, a partnership of solicitors and a trumpet of volunteers. It may also show signs of machine bureaucracy and adhocracy but for typology purposes the Professional Bureaucracy reflects “standardization with decentralization” (Mintzberg, 1979). Mintzberg’s Adhocracy is represented by smaller scale and fluid structures. Here a group of line managers, staff and operating experts come together most of the time in small product, customer or project-focused teams. Informal behaviour and high job specialisation are its characteristic. Teams rely on liaison methods and mutual adjustment between themselves and other teams. Teams have their terms of reference by more senior management and a team’s scope for action and membership may run counter to the command structure of the rest of the organisation e.g. a machine bureaucracy. Figure 5.                 Managerial Roles         Concept, Nature, Classification and the Mintzberg Framework of Managerial Roles     What is a managerial role? Mintzberg (1973) concludes that a role is a set of certain behavioral rules associated with a concrete organization or post. Thus, in addition to functions of management as parameters of managerial activities there appeared one more unit – managerial role. Mintzberg (1973) classified the roles into three groups- interpersonal, informational and the managerial proper. Roles do not exist per se, with every manager they are interdependent and interrelated in such a way that they allow to describe the nature of managerial activities taking into account levels of managers and the specificity of production processes (Mintzberg, 1979). Therefore, it is possible to define different types managers with the help of prevalent roles. Table 5 and Figure 5 show the managerial roles according to Mintzberg. Table 5. [Accessed at www.bashedu.ru] Managerial Roles According To Henry Mintzberg <ul type="disc" style="margin-bottom: 0in"> <li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify"> Interpersonal roles. 	 </li> </ul> 		  		Description of actions 		Examples from managerial 		practice requiring activation of corresponding roles 		1. Figurehead 		Symbolic leader of the 		organization performing duties of social and legal character 		Attending ribbon-cutting 		ceremonies, hosting receptions, presentations and other activities 		associated with the figurehead role 		2. Leader 		Motivating subordinates, 		interaction with them, selection and training of employees 		Virtually all managerial 		operations involving subordinates 		3. Liaison 		Establishing contacts with 		managers and specialists of other divisions and organizations, informing 		subordinates of these contacts 		Business correspondence, 		participation in meetings with representatives of other divisions 		(organizations)   <ul type="disc" style="margin-bottom: 0in"> <li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify"> Informational roles. 	 </li> </ul> 		1. Monitor (receiver) 		Collecting various data 		relevant to adequate work 		Handling incoming 		correspondence, periodical surveys, attending seminars and exhibitions, 		research tours 		2. Disseminator of 		information 		Transmitting information 		obtained from both external sources and employees to interested people 		inside the organization 		Dissemination of 		information letters and digests, interviewing, informing subordinates of 		the agreements reached 		3. Spokesperson 		Transmitting information 		on the organization’s plan’s, current situation and achievements of the 		divisions to outsiders 		Compiling and 		disseminating information letters and circulars, participation in 		meetings with progress reports   <ul type="disc" style="margin-bottom: 0in"> <li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify"> Decisional roles. 	 </li> </ul> 		1. Entrepreneur (initiator 		of channge) 		Seeking opportunities to 		develop processes both inside the organization and in the systems of 		interaction with other divisions and structures, initiates 		implementation of innovations to improve the organization’s situation 		and employee well-being 		Participation in meetings 		involving debating and decision making on perspective issues, and also 		in meetings dedicated to implementation of innovations 		2. Disturbance handler 		Taking care of the 		organizations, correcting ongoing activities, assuming responsibility 		when factors threatening normal work of the organization emerge 		Debating and decision 		making on strategic current issues concerning ways of overcoming crisis 		situations 		3. Resource allocator 		 		Deciding on expenditure of 		the organization’s physical, financial and human resources 		Drawing up and approving 		schedules, plans, estimates and budgets; controlling their execution 		4. Negotiator (mediator) 		Representing the 		organization in all important negotiations 		Conducting negotiations, 		establishing official links between the organization and other companies 	     According to Mintzberg (1973), the informational roles link all managerial work together; the interpersonal roles meanwhile ensure that information is provided; and the decisional roles make significant use of the information. The performance of managerial roles and the requirements of these roles can be interchangeably played at different times by the same manager and to different degrees depending on the level and function of management. The interpersonal roles are primarily concerned with interpersonal relationships while the informational roles are concerned with the information aspects of managerial work. On the other hand, the unique access to information places the manager at the center of organizational decision-making. Figure 5.       </div> Credit:ivythesis.typepad.com

Thesis Chapters 1-3 on Organizational Change on Managerial Roles in Petroleum Development of Oman (PDO)

Moreover the planned approach initiates form inside the organization to deal with environmental demands and the change process is sequ...