Research Topics: Bourdieuâ€™s Concept Of Cultural Capital

Developing a Considered Standpoint on Equity and Education

CULTURAL CAPITAL AND CULTURAL LITERACY   Introduction             One of the most important things that must be considered by every organization may it be public or corporate organizations is to establish a good relationship among its members.  This can be done by having good communication and interactions of each staffs and members of the organization.  This practice of smooth interaction is usually seen in design practices.  According to  (2004): “Design practices pay off most when they are incorporated across conception, development, use, and habituation of a product, service or environment – and are not just used to correct the usability and identity of a product conceived by other means. Usability engineers, database designers, visual artists, business managers, architects, psychologists, ethnographers and device developers all shape interaction design. In doing so, they draw on bodies of knowledge that vary in how codified they are and how understandable they are to others.” For  (2004), if this concept of interdisciplinary approaches will be adapted in an organisation, there is a greater possibility that the public relations and even corporate organization will be able to achieve its organisational goal. By definition, an organization may it be public or corporate is a system of at least two people with interdependence, input, throughput, and output ( 2001).   It is a system of purposeful, interpersonal activity designed to coordinate tasks.  Working in this definition, it is essential that every member of the organization communicates effectively with one another.  Organization is something people create through interactions and their activity.  Interactions within a group or inter-professional team go beyond the concepts of effective speaking or listening, or what is commonly considered as linear communication. It is an interactive model which deals with feedback and reciprocal exchanges. According to surveys focusing on areas of improvement among corporations, interdisciplinary approaches are usually ranked first as an important element within the organization (1993). Specifically, interactions are recognized as an important aspect of an organization as it keeps employees well-informed and open to communication channels. Moreover, organizational interdisciplinary approaches enable the employees to comply with organizational standards, leading to efficiency and accuracy. Primarily, the main goal of this paper is to provide insightful details regarding the application of interdisciplinary approaches within public relations and corporate organisations.  In addition, this will also provide information about the significance of cultural capital and cultural literacy in order to have more effective interdisciplinary approaches which these types of organisations can impose.   Interdisciplinary Approach: Public Relations and Corporate Organizations             Interdisciplinary approach is a term used to describe the interactions of various professionals from different disciplines working in collaboration and effective communication to achieve mutually agreed goals for clients, customers and other stakeholders. The promotion of interdisciplinary approach in the design practices has long been regarded by designers and other members of the design operations as of great importance. And for these designers, if this practice will be adapted or implemented within public relations and corporate organisations, they will be able to achieve its organisational goal of providing quality service among its target market.             Interdisciplinary approach to work implies that the various approaches are generally applied simultaneously over a substantial period of time rather than sequentially, which is more commonly termed multidisciplinary. For example, in the operations management of a certain organisation a multidisciplinary approach entails separate encounters of the staffs and personnel with suppliers and other members of the operation, one or more managers, employees, several product controller, and perhaps a supplier—each doing significant tasks to provide quality products to the target market. In a truly interdisciplinary approach, an organisation may use this by meeting together as a team to be involved in the work process, review test results, share opinions and perspectives, and develop a unified plan that might be reflected in a single note in the organisational operations. Interactions between professionals is fostered by an appreciation of each other’s expert contributions, agreement on the aims and goals in relation to a patient or client and agreed distribution of roles and related tasks in the context of an agreed programme of action.             The public relations and corporate organisation may use this interdisciplinary approach to running their organisational operations and activities by also considering management of change.  If managers were to encourage and facilitate the use of interdisciplinary approaches within its organisational performance, there is a possibility that such kind of organisation will have a more effective business or organisational environment. Overt organisational and administrative arrangements will be desirable, so that busy professionals and workers can devote appropriate time and attention to working with each other and with their managers. Above all, management should devise ways and means for official recognition and suitable reward for consistent interdisciplinary approach that is not only acceptable, but also effective and efficient. These changes in the working environment would facilitate trust, that essential prerequisite for a relaxed and effective working relationship between managers and their professional colleagues. Perhaps some expenditure on joint staff rooms for more informal interaction between managers and their colleagues might pay handsome dividends. Once interdisciplinary approach is not only an expected, but also a facilitated part of organisational practice, both managers and practitioners will recognise the need for perfecting their requisite skills. The further development of these competencies can then become an accepted, integral part of continuing effective collaboration among the members of the organisations.   Significance of Cultural Capital/Cultural Literacy             There are many factors which affect the effectiveness of utilizing or imposing interdisciplinary approach in both public relations and corporate organizations.  One of the common factors which have significant effect in the success or failure of considering interdisciplinary approach is with regards to culture, particularly cultural capital or cultural literacy.  Having interdisciplinary approaches also means, having effective communications and interactions within a group. In organizations, it is well-known that communication certainly affects business functions and operations.  The ability to communicate of the persons involved in a particular business transaction will, by and large, determine the outcomes or results.  Teams, which are the basis of an organization, are formed through it. Effective communications is a ‘life-skill’ upon which sound relationships are established.  An organisation may be able to adhere to its interdisciplinary approach if they will be able to determine the significance of cultural capital and cultural literacy within the organisational operations and activities. According to (2002), the process of making an organisation is simultaneously the growth and maintenance of relationships among individuals who are working towards a common goal and the actual accomplishment of tasks, individually and collectively. In any organisation, there exist two dimensions. The technical dimension includes elements that are generally visible but hard to decipher like the control systems (recruitment mechanisms, administrative rules and procedures, etc.), structures (departments and divisions and physical facilities), and techniques and procedures (performance, working methods).     Culture is the inter-subjective aspect of life.  It is learnt, much of it at a very young age, and it is reinforced through social pressure.  The result is that culture belongs to a whole group, not to its individuals, and we cannot avoid it.  It paramountly determines our behavior, at the same time as it gives us an anchoring point, an identity, a social place and a world view.  Because of the human need for order and consistency, our basic assumptions about humankind, nature and social activities become patterned into what may be called cultural ‘paradigms’ (1984) and these assumptions form a coherent pattern.  This pattern or framework is used to structure experience–to give meaning to thoughts and actions (1985).  It is transmitted in many ways, including long-standing and often unwritten rules, shared standards and even prejudices.  Within this general understanding of what culture means, it can be defined as being slightly different from one situation to another. Another dimension of culture is to clarify how deep-seated its shared qualities are (1986).  Values, for instance, can appear or be hidden at various levels of depth.  At the conscious level, or close to it, they may appear as behavioral norms.  Such norms are written or unwritten rules of the game. Examples of such norms could be: on time in meetings, wearing only dark business suits at work and not sharing information with other groups.  At a somewhat deeper level lays the hidden assumptions–the fundamental beliefs behind all decisions and actions that might be non-conscious cornerstones of culture.  For example, some assumptions that may be shared among the members of a group or organization are: the future must be planed as much as possible, quantifications of an act to make it more certain, there should be subordinate and superior in this world and cooperation that will improve motivation among the participants. People can have many theories about why the culture concept was able to catch their interest so thoroughly at this time; perhaps the time was ripe.  Maybe the reason was people’s growing international interest or maybe it was an increase in the interest of human beings.  One thing is clear, however: the cultural idea has led people to reevaluate the attributes of organizational success which are not part and parcel of the “orthodox” rationalist paradigm ( 1988). The cultural/political dimension is more intangible and strategic in nature. This dimension explains the assumption about the essence of the Secretariat’s culture. It includes rituals and myths, symbols and games. Due to the common behavior, an internal integration within the organisation is developed. In a sense, all cultural learning reflects the original values of individuals and their sense of what ought to be as distinct from what is.  (1990) defines culture as a system of symbolism and meaning (1992,). He argues that a society’s dominant class imposes its culture by engaging in pedagogic action (e.g., public relations and corporate organizations), which internalizes the dominant symbols and meanings in the next generation, thus reproducing the salience of the dominant culture. Thus, cultural capital, as conceptualized by  (1990), derives its analytic contribution from the notions of social practice and social reproduction of symbols and meanings. Cultural capital acts as a way of upholding and enhancing one’s status in a given social class. Therefore it is sought after, and indeed fought over to a certain extent. As  sees taste as a form of struggle, so he views our desire to be better than others as the primary method of ascension. Cultural capital is the tool in this life-long struggle of taste.  More specifically, cultural capital refers to the preference for high culture as opposed to low culture, One might generalize by saying that the more difficult an organisational interdisciplinary approach is to engage with, the more cultural capital can be earned through engaging with it. On the other hand, Cultural literacy can be defined as both a knowledge of meaning systems and an ability to negotiate those systems within different cultural contexts. It is virtually impossible to describe and analyse what is happening in any communication context or practice without using the concept of cultural literacy. The notion of interdisciplinary approach, specifically communication as a cultural practice requiring various forms of cultural literacy is strongly influenced by the work of Pierre . ‘s ideas are particularly useful to our understanding of interdisciplinary approach to communication because of his suggestion that practice, or what people actually do, is both constrained by, and develops as a response to, the rules and conventions of a culture. One way to understand the relation between culture and practice is through ‘s metaphor of the journey and the map ( 1990). Cultures are both the maps of a place (the rules and conventious) and the journeys that take place there (actual practices). Cultural literacy can be understood, then, as a ‘feel’ for negotiating those cultural rules and systems–for ‘making your way’ through a culture. And practice can be understood as the performance of cultural literacy. The concept of  culture at work, whether international, local or  at the organizational level, extensive emphasis should be warranted for because effective interdisciplinary practices plays an effective role on achieving high performance levels of employees. Considering culture is a broad and complex issue. Public relations and corporate leaders face formidable challenges in building a multicultural organisation that truly values cultural capital and cultural literacy. To be successful, managers need to “unlearn practices rooted in an old mind set, change the ways organisations operate, shift organisational culture, revamp policies, create new structures, and redesign human resource systems ( 1991).” This is a tall order and indeed may be so difficult and complicated that it requires a new paradigm to guide organisational management. To manage interdisciplinary approach strategically may require a shift from an efficiency mind set to one with a higher emphasis on human relations goals (1992).  For public relations officers or corporate management leading or working in the context of culture, the level of flexibility, communication skills and hands-on management required often goes above and beyond what they are accustomed to.  Regardless of where they are located, these professionals may find themselves challenge to motivate struggling employees.  Interdisciplinary approach through teamwork across cultures can present unique challenges and may be unfamiliar territory for many leaders for different organisations. Hence, realizing the value of both cultural capital and cultural literacy is an important aspect in interdisciplinary approach in which leaders of either public relations or corporate management.    and Secondary Schools Education is of crucial importance for  because it is the mechanism through which the values and relations that make up the social space are passed on from one generation to the next (1990). Accordingly,  has devoted much of his research to mapping relations and objective structures within the French school system. While the French school system which  studies is relatively closed, elitist and intensely competitive in its structure, his ideas still have resonance within apparently open and democratic school systems that are committed to advancing the cause of every child. Consequently, we argue that his ideas are relevant for understanding the school systems of all modern western societies, though it is necessary to consider the particular context that applies within schools in different nations. It apparent that heteronomous tendencies associated with the market are increasingly impacting on childhood itself and also on school systems in contemporary western societies (1992). The idea that schools must pay their way, for instance, or that school success should be judged according to business models, accompanies an associated move in which children are exposed to advertising campaigns through a range of media, including the Internet. So on the one hand, governments, including that of France, are using terms and concepts like ‘league tables’, ‘benchmarking’, ‘national testing’ and ‘quality control’ to measure efficiency and productivity and demonstrate the extent of their commitment to a literally business-like approach to schooling. And on the other hand, businesses themselves are increasingly viewing children, and the concept of childhood, as a desirable market for toys, fashion and other commodities. In a sense, these two trends have the effect of producing children and their experiences as commodities; that is, things to be bought and sold on the market. We can go so far as to say that, from this perspective, a person’s significance within the field of schooling has an inverse relationship with their autonomy ( 2001). That is, if an educationalist ignores these market imperatives and seeks to maintain an autonomous approach to nurturing children’s intellectual and spiritual growth, they are unlikely to have much authority or influence within the school system. Values have a place within schooling, and that these values work to give schools a special and particular place and role within the social field. But while it is acceptable and indeed valuable to articulate a commitment to nurturing the child’s whole growth as an individual, the ‘real work’ of schools largely takes place elsewhere, producing a ‘student commodity’ amenable to the interests of government, business and other heteronomous influences. In practice, rather than being fixed to either the autonomous or heteronomous poles, teachers move between these extremes in order to negotiate the various forces and imperatives with which they are confronted (2002). The degree to which a teacher is able and free to move between these poles, however, can be limited by their experiences and expectations. Given that  regards social relations as intrinsic to practices within the field of education, he is vitally interested in identifying the social background of the various individuals who make up the field. For example, in some of his research into the French school system,  considers the employment types of students’ parents as a guide to their level of success within the school environment. Of course, there are numerous other ways of mapping an individual’s social background: family income level, place of residence, religious affiliation, and so on. But for employment types serve as a useful means of differentiating social groups into various classes. For example, teachers would be regarded as intellectual workers and identified as part of the knowledge class, while farm hands would be identified as rural workers and hence part of the laboring class. Education is an important field because of its capacity to confer capital, particularly cultural capital, upon its participants. Indeed, education can be referred to as an academic market in terms of its distribution of such cultural capital. This capital can be measured in three forms: relating to individuals, to objects, and to institutions. Individuals are conferred with this capital through exhibiting an educated character, based on their knowledge, refined accents, and dispositions to learn and value education highly, and so on. The objects laden with cultural capital are books, qualifications and knowledge machine like computers, while  libraries, elite schools and universities is considered as form of capital. The point about such cultural capital is that it plays a crucial role in the reproduction of dominant social relations and structures. Knowledge tends to be seen as a good in itself, but linking it to the concept of cultural capital helps us to see how it operates in terms of social inequality (1985). Certain forms of knowledge, such as those associated with formal learning, are conferred with much more cultural capital than those forms of learning associated with practical activities like riding a bike. Because the cultural capital of knowledge is inequitably distributed, tending to favour those who occupy positions and dispositions that provide access to these socially legitimated and valued ways of knowing, knowledge becomes a marker of distinction and social privilege. In France, this distribution of cultural capital has been regulated according to the particular structural characteristics of the school system, with the distinction made between elite lycées with their focus on academic excellence, and the colleges and elementary schools that have focused on more vocationally based education. The education system is also heavily centralized, so that the focus has tended to be more on standardizing the curriculum than on taking account of the particular needs of different social groups. In this sense, French schools can be understood as factories of knowledge, committed to promoting the values of precise and analytical thought and elevated language, rather than as places for social interaction. In this context,  makes the point that the capital accrued from educational institutions only has value in fields that recognize and share this value. So it can be possible for people to lack the cultural capital of a school leaving certificate or university degree, but still succeed in other fields (1990). A member of a circus family who has received little formal schooling, for example, may make up for this with the skills they have learnt on the road, and the circus tricks such as lion taming or acrobatics that have been passed on to them by their family. The phrase ‘the University of Life’ captures this idea of the value of learning done in other than in formal educational settings. It is difficult to succeed in many fields without the cultural capital such qualifications provide. The cultural capital bound up in a degree or certificate is increasingly mandatory for entry into the field of employment. In many countries, for example, it is necessary to have a qualification from a training college to be permitted to cut people’s hair on a professional basis (1985). Though a person may have a natural ability to cut hair and create wondrous follicle effects upon the heads of friends and family, unless they have an approved certificate from a training college, they are not qualified to be employed in a hairdressing salon. And while the circus performer mentioned above may be able to practice their skills in the circus ring, they may be restricted from taking on other tasks within the circus, such as doing maintenance and repairs on the trucks carrying the circusrig from town to town, unless they have an approved mechanic’s certificate from a recognized training institution. Conclusion             Interdisciplinary approach which has been used within design practice is now being considered as one important aspect in running public relations or corporate organisations.  The underlying context of this approach is to make all members of a certain organisation be a productive and valuable part of organisational performance and operations. However, for every member of the organization to perform effectively, they need to maintain some form of control over members, stimulate members to perform, provide a means for emotional expression, and make decision choices.   A careful review of the topics discussed suggests in order ensuring effective and efficient interdisciplinary approach cultural concept must also be given emphasis. Part of this is the recognition of the significance of both cultural capital and cultural literacy in application of this new approach. There is also the evidence that demonstrates a positive relationship between effective communication and workers’ productivity in line with the interdisciplinary approach. Apparently, it shows that communication is a factor which is both crucial and feasible management instrument to affect these underlying motives for the change management process. Important questions in this respect are how and what to communicate to organization. There should also be commitment to two-way communication process, more emphasis on face-to-face communication, shared responsibility for employee communication, immediate discussion when organizational controversies and problems arise, accurate transmission of information, and moreover, every member of the organization should treat communication as an ongoing process.     Credit:ivythesis.typepad.com

Developing a Considered Standpoint on Equity and Education

CULTURAL CAPITAL AND CULTURAL LITERACY Introduction One of the most important things that must be considered by every or...