Research Topics: Adult Learning Examples

Traditional Learning versus Discovery (Collaborative/Progressive) Learning in Hong Kong Adult Education System

Learning through performance requires active discovery, analysis, interpretation, problem-solving, memory, and physical activity (Foreman, 2003).  The world we live in today and with all the new information and communication technology, it can be said that traditional practices of teaching are being replaced, for instance, with modern alternatives that are perceived to be more convenient and effective. The common Hong Kong (Chinese) education system similar to other Asian countries and territories is characterized as ‘spoon-feeding’ or “Peking Duck style-education” or rote learning (Chan, 1999). This means that the teachers provide their students all the needed information for knowledge building and the students merely accept and absorb everything the teachers give. For example, students are instructed to memorize books for examinations. Today, the trends of globalization and modernization affect almost all ways of living present in contemporary societies. It is a universal fact that many everyday chores are becoming more automated. With the commercialism of the Internet and the already wide acceptance and use of Information and Communications Technology (ICT) hardware and software, tasks that are difficult and stressful to perform before are now as easy as 1-2-3 or even A-B-C.  Proponents of the new technologies boast that these new systems will enable work to become faster and more accurate (Hipple & McClam, 2002). For many people who have access to websites, it opened a whole world of discovery for them. This is same as true with the process of learning as well as teaching. Now, the question of ambivalence on whether which learning style is more effective and applicable to the modern educational standards is posed. This paper aims to discuss the traditional style of learning (as well as education and teaching) against collaborative or discovery or progressive learning among Hong Kong teachers and students. Specifically, it tackles previous research studies and literatures probing the effectiveness of traditional and non-traditional learning and/or teaching. It uses adult education and learners as the focus group. Similarly, the author also incorporates personal reflection and critique of the issue.   Summary of the Context             Before digging deeper into the topic, there is an insistent preference to identify what determines quality education? UNESCO answered this question when they mentioned the four pillars of quality education (EFA Global Monitoring Report, 2005). The four pillars are: learning to know; learning to do; learning to live together; and learning to be.  First, ‘learning to know’ means that learners should build their own knowledge daily by combining creative and external elements. Next, ‘learning to do’ is centered on the practical application of what is learned. On the other hand, ‘learning to live together’ is about addressing the critical skills for an individual free from discrimination, where all have an equal opportunity to develop themselves, their families and their communities. Finally, ‘learning to be’ emphasizes the skills needed for individuals to develop towards their full potential. As previously stated, traditional Chinese education is considered as teacher-based. Students are passive in terms of participation to the exploration of knowledge. Chan (1999) describes the Chinese students as less impulsive and more likely to obey the rules to their teachers. A very outstanding feature of Chinese students, as noted by Kirkbribe and Tang (cited in Chan, 1999) is that they prefer to leave all matters to the teacher as a means of showing respect for the wisdom and capabilities the teachers possess. A Chinese student is more likely not to challenge the teacher or express his/her opinion unless being asked to do so (Wong, 2004). On the contrary, Biggs (1996) affirms that Chinese students are active in face-to-face communication with the teacher and also interpersonal communication outside the learning situation. Generally, the learning style of Chinese students is believed to be influenced by Confucianism (Chan, 1999). The teacher is the main source of knowledge and the way he/she teach is standardized. According to Wong (2004), most Western counterparts viewed Asians as passive learners due to the presence of ‘spoon-fed’ or rote learning method particularly in terms of memorization which they believe not to enhance understanding.  Most learning environments are perceived to be slave of this learning strategy. On the other hand, Marton, Alba and Kun (1996) argued that there are two types of memorization, that is, memorization with understanding and mechanical memorization. This group of authors concluded that Asian students perform better in terms of achievement as to compare Western students because Asian students memorize and understand at the same time. Meanwhile, as opposed to the previous discussion, the traditional learning strategy of Chinese is gradually replaced by new innovations in education such as the incorporation of technology in teaching. It is believed that students can be seen as more motivated and interested into a subject when daily lessons are incorporated with ICT. This implies that learning is no longer trapped with the traditional pattern of being provided by teachers. People today have the chance to explore things easily for themselves because of the many learning tools and technologies available. The growth of technologies did not only change the way people work and function, but also the demand of business companies all over the world. For instance, employers are now on the lookout for flexible employees who can easily adapt with changes and can work with minimal instructions and supervision. This type of attitude towards how an employee should react is contrary to what traditional methods of learning implies. Companies do not always want employees to rely on instructions and commands from superiors, instead they want employees who can think for themselves. This then would suggest that there is a great opportunity to explore the practice of discovery or progressive learning. Now, the challenges and demands of the modern societies can be addressed by consideration to change. In this particular instance, the traditional learning strategy is confronted by a new strategy called discovery or collaborative or progressive learning. Hong Kong’s educational system is then considered to undergo a gradual transformation.   Discussion/Synthesis/Analysis Discovery learning, contrary to traditional learning relying on classroom instructions, focuses on the learning taking place within the individual, the teaching and instructional strategies designed by the teacher, and the environment created when such strategies are used (Castronova, 2002).  However, this type of learning method is not left without any scrutiny from critics, mostly proponents of traditional learning. Evers (1998) (cited in Castronova, 2002) elaborated those critics of discovery or progressive education pinpoints on the fault that progressive educators decline to look at the results of their methods. Evers further explained that discovery educators elevate those methods into an object of near-religious reverence and stress methods at the expense of knowledge of subject matter. Because of continuous debate on which learning method is more effective, there is still a need to assess the subject as much as possible to reach a final consensus.  Furthermore, there is a need to support the issue on a certain focus group such as adult learners. In adult education and learning perspectives, Scott (1998) (cited in Kagan & Meidow, 2002) identified five philosophies in adult education namely: liberal, progressive, behaviorist, humanist, and radical. With this particular fact, the argument of what kind of pedagogy will be used may be based in these given philosophies. However, Kagan and Meidow (2002) argued that these five philosophies provide a clear framework to understand the different definitions, goals, roles, concepts, methods and scholars within adult education. They noted that importance of realizing that in reality, the personal philosophies of every individual in education do not fit exactly into specific categories and that while majority of people may identify primarily with one philosophy, others may share elements of the others (Kagan & Meidow, 2002). Just recently, the delivery of quality education is still dominated by the traditional classroom instruction approaches of education. Classroom learning is still one of the oldest forms of learning that is used today (Lord, 1997). It can up hold the four pillars of education because aside from cognitive learning, it also helps the student in the direction of creative and emotional development. Experienced teachers deliver many subtle messages and important lessons in such classrooms, which might be diminished in other types of flexible learning. On the contrary, non-traditional methods are said to decrease social and emotional learning (Donlevy, 2003). In addition, students with low reading abilities and problems with motivation may find it difficult to sustain interest in accomplishing all learning activities associated with other types of learning (Donlevy, 2003).  The bottom-line is that there should be a superior figure who should monitor the progress of the students and guide them every step of the way. The constructivist theory very much relates to discovery learning. Constructivism is a theory of knowledge and cognition that research has revealed in describing student learning. Von Glasersfeld (1996) defined constructivism as principles: “that knowledge is not passively received, either by sensing or by communicating, but is actively built up by the cognizing subject; and that the function of cognition is adaptive, and tries to increase fitness or viability – serves the organization of the experiential world of the subject, not the discovery of ontological reality”. This principle explains that the perception and confirmation of one’s knowledge in social interaction plays a crucial role in a person’s construction of his or her observed reality and is based on subjectivity. Subjectivity means that the student must explore the method according to his or her own interest. It can also provide a ‘blind exploration’ for the students. In other words, the student can enhance his or her knowledge through his or her own efforts and determination to learn.      Constructivism suggests that learning can be more likely achieved when instructions are student-centered as opposed to teacher-based. It involves more active learning experiences, different interaction between teachers and students, and more work in solving realistic problems through concrete materials (Kirschner, Sweller, & Clark, 2005; Jensen, 2000). Simply put constructivism as a philosophy of learning founded on the premise that by reflecting on our own experiences, we construct our own understanding of the world we live in. Each of us generates our own “rules” and “mental models”, which we use to make sense of our experiences. Learning, therefore, is simply the process of adjusting our mental models to accommodate new experiences (Darling-Hammond, 1998). As a conception of constructivism, it is still unclear if educators will favor discovery learning in time. Literature shows both potential and stagnation for discovery learning. To further understand discovery learning and its advantage on traditional learning, there is still a need to further compare the two practices. Further research is imperative as mentioned by Castronova (2002).    Generally speaking, integrating new technology in the classroom, increase in population of students, and meeting academic standards and goals are but a few of the problems that schools today face (National Commission on Teaching and America’s Future, 1996; Rebora, 2004). Adult education is certainly affected by the ambiguity that characterizes the contemporary global situation today. Increasingly, there are difficult questions posed about what constitutes the field of adult education and what are its values and purposes (Bryant et al., 1997). In times when a greater number of adults coming from a diversity of backgrounds enter an increasing variety of programmes, another set of problems is emerging. The difficulty in coping with the current uncertainty is compounded by the nature of the contemporary situation, which itself is difficult to characterize and interpret. Whilst there is general agreement that the world is extremely witnessing profound economic, technological and cultural changes, there is less agreement on whether these constitute a continuation of quality education. The utilization of discovery learning in Hong Kong education system will improve student’s achievement because it motivate students to explore, integrate, and generalize knowledge; student driven, interest-based activities in which the student determines the sequence and frequency, and; activities to encourage integration of new knowledge into the learner’s existing knowledge base (Castronova, 2002; Reardon, 2002; Dinmore, 1997). Castronova (2002) also found five characteristics such as: learning is active rather than passive (Mosca & Howard, 1997); learning is process-oriented rather than content-oriented; failure is important; feedback is necessary (Bonwell, 1998), and understanding is deeper (Papert, 2000). These characteristics differentiate discovery learning greatly from traditional learning as their combination are claimed to more learning opportunities because learners internalize concepts when they go through a natural progression to understand them (Castronova, 2002; Herzer, Jonas, & Weimer, 2001). However, Castronova concluded that discovery learning is still no match with traditional classroom learning in terms of prestige because current legislations still favor the latter. The current legislations lean toward accountability based on test scores, standardizing content-based curriculum, and maintaining higher class sizes to reduce work cost. This is clearly against discovery learning being adopted in the classroom (Castronva, 2002). Castronova also identified another current problem of discovery learning such as there is a shortage of professionally trained teachers in the market (Castronova, 2002). With the problems encountered in this pedagogical arena, the debate including which among traditional and non-traditional learning strategies is more effective continues. The question on what is more effective – traditional learning or collaborative/progressive or discovery learning – constantly finds compelling arguments, strong evidences and truthful answers. Whether or not either approach is effective or ineffective than the other, it is still imperative to consider the inherent characteristics that differentiate the one from the other. The only thing that does seem reasonably certain is that adult educators are finding it increasingly challenging to simply take refuge in the certainties of the past. The literatures recorded in the area of this study continue to validate the fact on what kind of learning (or teaching) strategy is more effective. As people move from the ‘field’ of adult education to a ‘moorland’ of adult learning, so the guiding paradigms of adult education, its theory, purposes and practices, need reconfiguring and new conceptual resources are required to make sense of the contemporary conjuncture and of the place of adult education within that (Bryant, et al., 1997). Bryant and colleagues affirmed that it would be difficult to argue that adult education can sustain itself, as it is presently constituted in the face of the challenges posed by late modernity/post-modernity. In relation to Hong Kong setting, Baker (1983) (cited in Ma, 1999) stated that the Hong Kong generation was brought up in a social environment very different from that on the mainland. The shift in the economy of labor-intensive to information-intensive, the rise of Hong Kong as one of the largest financial centers in the world, and the initiatives of the Hong Kong government in welfare, public housing, education, and transportation had provided the urbanized setting for the ‘emergence of a Hong Kong Man’ who is very different from the Chinese of the mainland. The following characteristics may serve as foundational basis to the consideration on what educational system is best suited.   Recommendation and Conclusion Thus, as a suggestion, there is a need for Hong Kong educational authorities to evaluate the current conditions of the academic arena. The continuous understanding of the current trends and its applicability to the area of specialization is very crucial if not vulnerable. The role of the government is also imperative. Similarly, teachers need to upgrade their know-how as well as ability in relation to teaching and imparting knowledge. I personally believe that there is something much better that discovery learning (collaborative/progressive) can give. Aside from making the learning experience more interesting and encompassing, it deviates from the traditional practice of ‘spoon-feeding’ or rote learning as seen in traditional medium of instruction. The technologies that we have today surely allow and help every student to reach their maximum potentials in becoming productive citizens. To end, before categorically defining which effective and quiet ineffective pedagogical approach is, it is important to know that learning depends to some degree on the theoretical lens a person use to look at it. For instance, the behaviorist lens sees it as the acquisition of knowledge and skills that changes a person’s behavior. On the other hand, the cognitive theorist’s lens focuses more on the acquisition of knowledge than on the resulting behavior change. Thus, it is safe to state that whatever strategy in learning used in education, effects will be remain constant given the fact that the subject of application, area of study, the teacher’s and students’ factors, and other potential affecting factors are carefully studied and considered. Credit:ivythesis.typepad.com

Traditional Learning versus Discovery (Collaborative/Progressive) Learning in Hong Kong Adult Education System

Learning through performance requires active discovery, analysis, interpretation, problem-solving, memory, and physical activity (F...

Sample Research Study Traditional Learning versus Collaborative and Discovery learning in Adult Education Setting

Traditional Learning versus Collaborative and Discovery learning in Adult Education Setting     Introduction Learning through performance requires active discovery, analysis, interpretation, problem-solving, memory, and physical activity (Foreman, 2003).  The world we live in today, with all the new information and communication technology, can be said that traditional practices of teaching are being replaced with modern alternatives that are perceived as more convenient and effective. It is a universal fact that many everyday jobs are becoming more automated. With the commercialism of the Internet and the already wide acceptance and use of Information Technologies hardware and software, tasks that are difficult and stressful to perform before are now as easy as 1-2-3 or even A-B-C.  Proponents of the new technologies boast that these new systems will enable work to become faster and more accurate. For many people who have access to Web sites, it opened a whole world of discovery for them. Meanwhile, students can be seen as more motivated and interested into a subject when daily lessons are incorporated with ICT. This implies that learning is no longer trapped with the traditional pattern of being provided by teachers. People today have the chance to explore things easily for themselves because of the many learning tools and technologies available. The growth of technologies did not only change the way people work and function, but also the demand of business companies all over the world. For instance, employers are now on the lookout for flexible employees who can easily adapt with changes and can work with minimal instructions and supervision. This type of attitude towards how an employee should react is contrary to what traditional methods of learning implies. Companies do not always want employees to rely on instructions and commands from superiors, instead they want employees who can think for themselves. This then would suggest that there is a great opportunity to explore the practice of discovery or progressive learning. Discovery learning, contrary to traditional learning relying on classroom instructions, focuses on the learning taking place within the individual, the teaching and instructional strategies designed by the teacher, and the environment created when such strategies are used (Castronova, 2002).  However, this type of learning method is not left without any scrutiny from critics, mostly proponents of traditional learning. Evers (1998) elaborated that critics of discovery or progressive education pinpoints on the fault that progressive educators decline to look at the results of their methods. Evers (1998) further explained that discovery educators elevate those methods into an object of near-religious reverence and stress methods at the expense of knowledge of subject matter. Because of continuous debate on which learning method is more effective, there is still a need to assess the subject as much as possible to reach a final consensus.  Furthermore, there is a need to support the issue on a certain focus group such as adult learners. This paper aims to review several literatures about education and collaborative or discovery or progressive learning. Specifically, it tackles previous research studies and literatures probing the effectiveness of traditional and non-traditional learning and/or teaching.        Literature Review   Today, the adult education class strives to provide adult learners an opportunity to use and apply what they have learned. It encourages the learners to think critically and to constantly redefine the content and process of the learning experience. Adult education is also expected to heighten individual awareness of community issues, motivate learners to create opportunities, embrace new ideas and give direction to positive change. Before digging deeper into the topic, there is an insistent preference to identify what determines quality education? UNESCO answered this question when they mentioned the four pillars of quality education (EFA Global Monitoring Report, 2005). The four pillars are: learning to know; learning to do; learning to live together; and learning to be.  First, ‘learning to know’ means that learners should build their own knowledge daily by combining creative and external elements. Next, ‘learning to do’ is centered on the practical application of what is learned.  On the other hand, ‘learning to live together’ is about addressing the critical skills for an individual free from discrimination, where all have an equal opportunity to develop themselves, their families and their communities. Finally, ‘learning to be’ emphasizes the skills needed for individuals to develop towards their full potential. In adult education and learning perspectives, an article written by Sue Scott (1998 cited in Kagan and Meidow, 2002) identified five philosophies in adult education namely: liberal, progressive, behaviorist, humanist, and radical. With this particular fact, the argument of what kind of pedagogy will be used may be based in these given philosophies. However, Kagan and Meidow (2002) argued that these five philosophies provide a clear framework to understand the different definitions, goals, roles, concepts, methods and scholars within adult education. They noted that importance of realizing that in reality, the personal philosophies of every individual in education do not fit exactly into specific categories and that while majority of people may identify primarily with one philosophy, others may share elements of the others (Kagan and Meidow, 2002). Just recently, the delivery of quality education is still dominated by the traditional classroom instruction approaches of education. Classroom learning is still one of the oldest forms of learning that is used today. It can up hold the four pillars of education because aside from cognitive learning, it also helps the student in the direction of creative and emotional development. Experienced teachers deliver many subtle messages and important lessons in such classrooms, which might be diminished in other types of flexible learning. On the contrary, non-traditional methods are said to decrease social and emotional learning (Donlevy, 2003). In addition, students with low reading abilities and problems with motivation may find it difficult to sustain interest in accomplishing all learning activities associated with other types of learning (Donlevy, 2003).  The bottom-line is that there should be a superior figure who should monitor the progress of the students and guide them every step of the way. However, the recent view of organizations on how the learning process can be more effective is more on the favor of informal learning rather than the formal classroom learning process. The article written by Reardon (2002) “How Engineers Learn in the Face of Organizational Change” directly relates to this process. In the article, Reardon (2002) discussed the importance of informal learning to engineers today. Reardon (2002) cited from Schon (1983) that an experienced professional does not only need traditional or technical training, because they often ‘reflect in action’. Reardon emphasized that informal learning takes place as professionals seek solutions. This type of learning is coined as incidental learning, which may take place without the learner being aware of it. The study conducted by Reardon is related with this issue as the researcher investigates how experienced engineers learned following an organizational change within their company. The study was inductive qualitative and was based on interviews of nine experienced engineers as Reardon (2002) asked them to reflect how they learned to perform their jobs after a major organizational change.  The study found out that engineers learn new tasks for themselves because such tasks cannot be explained or directed by procedures. There was basically a sharing of ideas once one of the engineers learns something they would pass the information on to the next person. Learning was informal and peer-to-peer but it got the job done and enabled the engineers to adapt to change. However, the problem is that informal learning comes naturally and there were no means or methods to promote them. The engineers learned as they discovered for themselves without any teachers. The only downside of this method, according to Reardon (2002) is that it is not likely effective to inexperienced engineers because of the level of discovery is of those who have adequate experience in the field.   The study of Reardon reviewed recently is a direct example of discovery learning. It can be helpful to follow this with a review of Castronova’s (2002) article entitled: “Discovery Learning for the 21st Century: What is it and how does it compare to traditional learning in effectiveness in the 21st Century?” This article more or less completely discussed the different aspects of discovery learning and compared them with the traditional methods. Castronova’s (2002) cited Dewey and Piget, two known fathers of similar method which discovery learning refers to a learning method that “encompasses an instructional model and strategies that focus on active, hands-on learning opportunities for students”. This definition accurately fits the experiences of the engineers in Reardon’s (2002) study, which was reviewed earlier.   Castronova’s (2002) not only defined discovery learning but also cited three attributes that includes: exploring and problem solving to create, integrate, and generalize knowledge; student driven, interest-based activities in which the student determines the sequence and frequency, and; activities to encourage integration of new knowledge into the learner’s existing knowledge base. All characteristics mentioned by Castronova’s (2002) can be reflected from the participants in Reardon’s (2002) study. At first, Reardon’s (2002) engineers were fundamentally faced with problems that are new to them. By being faced with such problems, they developed the solutions among themselves to best fit their situation when traditional instruction failed them. In this type of experience, students rather than the teacher drive the learning. On the other hand, Reardon’s (2002) participants also set the pace of learning for themselves. They did not hurry or drag their feet, but rather calculated and incorporated the correct learning pace that best suited them. Castronova (2002) interpreted this advantage as being able to achieve some degree of flexibility in sequencing and frequency with learning activities. Finally, the third attribute relates with Reardon’s (2002) engineers because this attribute implies that they build new knowledge from their existing understanding and experiences. Familiarity is an important factor in this attribute. Castronva (2002) explained that scenarios with which the students are familiar allow the students to build on their existing knowledge by extending what they already know to invent new ideas. The engineers, being the student, looked in their pervious experiences for help for them to formulate new knowledge for their new experiences. Other than the three attributes mentioned, discovery learning also have five characteristics that are unique from traditional learning. Castronva (2002) found five characteristics such as: learning is active rather than passive (Mosca & Howard, 1997); learning is process-oriented rather than content-oriented; failure is important; feedback is necessary (Bonwell, 1998), and understanding is deeper (Papert, 2000). These characteristics differentiate discovery learning greatly from traditional learning as their combination are claimed to more learning opportunities because learners internalize concepts when they go through a natural progression to understand them (Castronva, 2002). However, Castronva concluded that discovery learning is still no match with traditional classroom learning in terms of prestige because current legislations still favor the latter. The current legislations lean toward accountability based on test scores, standardizing content-based curriculum, and maintaining higher class sizes to reduce work cost. This is clearly against discovery learning being adopted in the classroom (Castronva, 2002). Castronva also identified another current problem of discovery learning such as there is a shortage of professionally trained teachers in the market (Castronva, 2002). One literature that tries to prove why minimally guided instructions such as that of discovery learning often fail is the article written by Kirschner and colleagues (2005) titled: “Why Minimal Guidance during Instruction does not Work: an Analysis of Failure of Constructivist, Discovery, Problem-Based, Experiential, and Inquiry-Based Teaching”.  Kirschner and contemporaries (2005) argued that while unguided or minimally-guided instructional approaches (such as discovery learning) are very popular and intuitively appealing, these approaches ignore both the structures that constitute human cognitive architecture. Also, evidence from empirical studies over the past half century consistently indicate that minimally-guided instruction is less effective and less efficient than instructional approaches that place a strong emphasis on guidance of the student learning process. Kirschner and group (2005) constantly argue that the goal of instruction is not usually to search for or discover information and give learners specific guidance about how to cognitively manipulate information in ways that are consistent with a learning goal, and store the result in long-term memory. They stated that without such guidance, novice students would have difficulty looking for problems. Kirschner and co-authors (2005) also mentioned how instructions support long-term memory. Therefore, if nothing has changed in long-term memory, nothing has been learned. Minimal guidance to instruction may hinder learning; therefore, traditional learning or instructions should be favored.      The constructivist theory very much relates to discovery learning. Constructivism is a theory of knowledge and cognition that research has revealed in describing student learning. Von Glasersfeld (1996) defined constructivism as principles: “that knowledge is not passively received, either by sensing or by communicating, but is actively built up by the cognizing subject; and that the function of cognition is adaptive, and tries to increase fitness or viability – serves the organization of the experiential world of the subject, not the discovery of ontological reality”. This principle explains that the perception and confirmation of one’s knowledge in social interaction plays a crucial role in a person’s construction of his or her observed reality and is based on subjectivity. Subjectivity means that the student must explore the method according to his or her own interest. It can also provide a ‘blind exploration’ for the students. In other words, the student can enhance his or her knowledge through his or her own efforts and determination to learn.      Constructivism suggest learning can be more likely achieved when instructions are student-centered, involves more active learning experiences, different interaction between teachers and students, and more work in solving realistic problems through concrete materials (Jenson, 2001). Simply put constructivism as a philosophy of learning founded on the premise that by reflecting on our own experiences, we construct our own understanding of the world we live in. Each of us generates our own “rules” and “mental models”, which we use to make sense of our experiences. Learning, therefore, is simply the process of adjusting our mental models to accommodate new experiences (Fuuderstanding, 1998-2001). As a conception of constructivism, it is still unclear if educators will favor discovery learning in time. Literature shows both potential and stagnation for discovery learning. To further understand discovery learning and its advantage on traditional learning, there is still a need to further compare the two practices. Further research is imperative as mentioned by Castronva (2002).    Generally speaking, integrating new technology in the classroom, increase in population of students, and meeting academic standards and goals are but a few of the problems that schools today face (National Commission on Teaching and America’s Future, 1996; Rebora, 2004). Adult education is certainly affected by the ambiguity that characterizes the contemporary global situation today. Increasingly, there are difficult questions posed about what constitutes the field of adult education and what are its values and purposes (Bryant et al., 1997). In times when a greater number of adults coming from a diversity of backgrounds enter an increasing variety of programmes, another set of problems is emerging. The difficulty in coping with the current uncertainty is compounded by the nature of the contemporary situation, which itself is difficult to characterize and interpret. Whilst there is general agreement that the world is extremely witnessing profound economic, technological and cultural changes, there is less agreement on whether these constitute a continuation of quality education. With the problems encountered in this pedagogical arena, the debate including traditional and non-traditional learning strategies continues. The question on what is more effective – traditional learning or collaborative/progressive or discovery learning – constantly finds compelling arguments, strong evidences and truthful answers. Whether or not either approach is effective or ineffective than the other, it is still imperative to consider the inherent characteristics that differentiate the one from the other. The only thing that does seem reasonably certain is that adult educators are finding it increasingly challenging to simply take refuge in the certainties of the past. The literatures recorded in the area of this study continue to validate the fact on what kind of learning (or teaching) strategy is more effective. Much has been written about traditional and non-traditional learning and education. Mostly, they cater to the general education perspectives. Conversely, the fact remains that most researches are neutral or even ambivalent. For instance, Scott and Conrad (1991) examined preceding research, which compared traditional and intensive course formats. The prearranged study vary from nontraditional courses developed during World War II and may be applied up to the present times. Based on the outcome of their research, there are no significant differences in student learning and no support was gathered that one type of learning format is better than the other. Consequently, Scott-Conrad (1991) concluded that, “based on the evidence, intensive courses seem to be effective alternatives to traditional-length classes regardless of format, degree of intensity, discipline or field of study – although the research seems to suggest that certain fields of study may benefit more than others” (p. 67). According to Chapman (1999), adult learners in most situations have to plan from scratch, in other words, be self-creative. However, it is not enough that such learners are dependent to what they discover along the way. There is a need for them to validate the credibility and factualness of the knowledge they learned by themselves by using the standards of evaluation present in formal learning. Thus, the role of professional mentors in monitoring is important. Chapman’s study clearly indicates that adult education uses both traditional and non-traditional pedagogical methods and guaranteed that the combination of both can obtain more positive results. As people move from the ‘field’ of adult education to a ‘moorland’ of adult learning, so the guiding paradigms of adult education, its theory, purposes and practices, need reconfiguring and new conceptual resources are required to make sense of the contemporary conjuncture and of the place of adult education within that (Bryant, et al., 1997). Bryant and colleagues affirmed that it would be difficult to argue that adult education can sustain itself, as it is presently constituted in the face of the challenges posed by late modernity/post-modernity. On specific researches focusing on the effectiveness of non-traditional learning, Jonas, Weimer and Herzer (2001) compared traditional and non-traditional adult education in undergraduate business programs in Cardinal Stritch University (CSU) focusing on academic achievement through pre- and post-assessment by using the Educational Testing Service (ETS) Major Field Achievement Test (MFAT) in business. Results of the study implied that the nontraditional business students at CSU scored higher than the traditional business students on the ETS MFAT assessment. Although, related research literature concluded mixed results in favor of nontraditional learning. The findings of the research were considered as the initial foundation of CSU in curriculum and program improvement. The pitfall of this research endeavor is the presence of a limited research environment (the own university), participants (its own students) and directed only to a specific area (business). Furthermore, Lord (1997) compared constructivist teaching to traditional teaching in a year-long study. Lord explains that constructivist educators believe that learners assess new knowledge by associating it with prior experiences, student-centered group activities, and the presentation of only necessary content in a lesson. This study is not actually focused on adult education yet it concentrates on the aspect of traditional and constructivist teaching. In his study, Lord compared two populations of General Biology students taught by the same instructor by two different teaching methods. To complete the empirical study, the same unit exams were given to each group. Results showed that the constructivist group scored significantly higher on each of the unit exams than their traditional counterparts. In conclusion, Lord justified the results by stating that the constructivist group was able to discuss and formulate their own understandings which helped them integrate and actually apply the knowledge as compared to the traditional learning experience which is strictly memorization of content (pp. 197-215). As compared from other authors, Dinmore (1997) conducted his research focusing on the importance of interdisciplinarity and integrative learning in adult education. He deemed that experiential learning is more appropriate in adult education especially in terms of interdisciplinary studies, thus, involving interaction to either formal or non-formal learning environments. Adults learn in a variety of ways. Regardless of whether their learning is derived in a formal or an informal setting, the way in which they learn is closely connected with the diverse experiences in their life (Dinmore, 1997). Previous adult education scholars like Lindeman and also practitioners noted the apparent tendency of adult learners to integrate their experiences in an attempt to assign meaning. This fact means that adult learners are inclined to self-learning and personal discovery. Dinmore’s study proves the mutual effectiveness of traditional and discovery or collaborative learning in adult education. Similarly, he acknowledged the unique abilities of both approaches especially in terms of knowledge assimilation of interdisciplinary subjects. The individual evaluation of teaching methods particularly the teacher in traditional classroom setting was also included. Based on the findings, an important factor in many adult students’ evaluation of teaching effectiveness is whether their instructor has been able to make connections between course content, the rest of their study program, and their own experience (Dinmore, 1997; Dinmore and Rohrer, 1996). At the end of his research after his recommendation for further investigation, Dinmore suggested that interdisciplinary studies and integrative learning is more appropriately match the needs of a learning (adult) population when its resources are manage carefully. A similar study performed by Miller and Groccia (1997) also compared teaching formats: a traditional lecture-based biology course versus a cooperative taught biology course. The research process includes a traditional course that was team-taught by two instructors in a traditional teaching format. The cooperative course was taught by Miller by encouraging active engagement from the students by discussing what they were learning with others, writing about what they were learning and relating this new learning to past experiences in order to apply the new knowledge to their daily lives. To make the research more valid and credible, the Watson-Glaser Critical Thinking Appraisal was administered to both learning groups. As a result, the cooperative class scored higher than the traditional class on section tests assessing inference, recognition of assumptions, and deduction and interpretation. On the other hand, the traditional class scored higher on the test of evaluation of arguments. In general, none of the differences were found to be significant. Specifically, on the post-Biology I assessment of factual knowledge, both groups scored identically while on the post-Biology II assessment, the cooperative class scored significantly higher than the traditional class. With these findings, Miller and Groccia reported that the cooperative class students rated learning effective teamwork skills to a greater degree than those in the traditional class. They concluded from this study that the use of cooperative learning strategies would support the need in the professional scientific world for teamwork skills. In some related research studies, collaborative/progressive or discovery learning guarantees effective professional development. In a study by the National Staff Development Council (2000), it showed that in the eight award-winning professional-development program public schools that they studied, the professional-development programs were characterized by collaborative structures, diverse and extensive professional-learning opportunities, and an emphasis on accountability and student results (Wenglinsky, 2000; Rebora, 2004). The proponent of this “consensus view” of professional development highlights the need for collaborative learning contexts, teacher research and inquiry, engagement in practical tasks of instruction and assessment, exploration of relevant subject matter, and consistent feedback and follow-up activities. These recommendations for training seminars are often outweighed by flexible but purposeful menu of teacher networks, study groups, partnerships with universities, peer reviews, online-learning activities, and curriculum-development projects (Little, 1994; Darling-Hammond, 1998; Smylie et al, 2001; National Staff Development Council, 2001; Rebora, 2004). Aside from studying the type of learning to be implemented in adult education setting, it is also imperative to mention other factors such as the teacher, the learner, the subject and the others. Teachers would need time to adjust to these propositions of changing the way they instruct. This means that schools will have to provide occasions for teachers to reflect and practice on their new way of teaching. Also, the teachers must be willing to fashion new knowledge and beliefs about content, pedagogy, and learners (Darling-Hammond and McLaughlin, 1995). It should be noted that not all teachers are given the same opportunity to broaden their knowledge of the subject that they are teaching. As an analogy, the capitalist in businesses need to research and develop his products so that his customers will always be satisfied. In education, the capitalist is the government, the customers are the students, and the products are the teachers. If the teachers were not developed to suit what the students are looking for to encourage them to study harder, then the business would die. Education would not be out-of-business, but if the information given by teachers and the way they deliver it would not change, then there would be no researchers or politicians or doctors in the future, because what the students know may not make they qualify for a college education. It is important that the way teachers teach be reformed or improved. It is important because the way students learn vary from year to year. Students this year may be able to catch up with the way teachers teach today, but students next year being taught the same way may not be able to catch up with the lessons. The problem is not how the teachers teach; the problem is the diversity of the way students learns. If the teachers learn to understand this there may be a better chance that students will be able to absorb what they are being taught. Another problem in the traditional learning method is the presence of disinterest of learners especially adults with the methods on how lessons are presented. Hipple and McClam (2002) had discussed what better teachers do in order to catch the attention of students, and how to teach topics, which students could see as boring, and turn into a more interesting lecture. But the article did not tackle what the students are expecting of their teachers. According to Davis (1999), there are students who are naturally enthusiastic about learning. But many of these students need or expect their teachers to be inspiring, challenging, and stimulating. And that, whatever motivation the students have can be transformed by what happens inside the classroom. At this case, the controversy of whether or not traditional learning (teaching) should be replaced with discovery or collaborative learning (teaching) is verified. In conclusion, before categorically defining which effective and quiet ineffective pedagogical approach is, it is important to know that learning depends to some degree on the theoretical lens a person use to look at it. For instance, the behaviorist lens sees it as the acquisition of knowledge and skills that changes a person’s behavior. On the other hand, the cognitive theorist’s lens focuses more on the acquisition of knowledge than on the resulting behavior change. Thus, it is safe to state that whatever strategy in learning used in adult education, effects will be remain constant given the fact that the subject of application, area of study, the teacher’s and students’ factors, and other potential affecting factors are carefully studied and considered. Credit:ivythesis.typepad.com

Sample Research Study Traditional Learning versus Collaborative and Discovery learning in Adult Education Setting

Traditional Learning versus Collaborative and Discovery learning in Adult Education Setting Introduction Learning through performa...

Leadership and Adult Learning: the missing link

Leadership and Adult Learning: the missing link   Research Design and Instrument             In order to come up with the most suitable research approaches and strategies for this study, the research process “onion” is undertaken. This is because conducting a research is like peeling the back layers of an onion – in order to come to the central issue of how to collect the necessary data needed to answer the research questions and objectives, important layers should be first peeled away. With the said process, the researcher was able to create an outline on what measures are most appropriate to be applied in the study. The researcher uses the qualitative research design utilizing the descriptive research method, which is primarily concerned with describing the nature or conditions of the current situation in detail (1994). According to  (2000), the qualitative research approach is most appropriate when conducting descriptive and exploratory study in order to quantify data that seem immeasurable, such as feelings, beliefs, and thoughts. Qualitative research is defined by  (2003) as “a subjective approach which includes examining and reflecting on perceptions in order to gain an understanding of social and human activities” . The emphasis is on describing rather than on judging. This study employs qualitative research method, since it intends to find and build theories that would explain the relationship of one variable with another variable through qualitative elements. These qualitative elements does not have standard measures, rather they are behavior, attitudes, opinions, and beliefs. So, the goals of qualitative research are primarily to advance new theory, interpret the significance of individual events and giving voice to particular groups.             So, the goals of qualitative research are primarily to advance new theory, interpret the significance of individual events and giving voice to particular groups. In contrast quantitative research is primarily about testing theory, identifying broad patterns and making predictions. Quantitative researchers are interested in how variables co-vary across cases. Therefore, they seek a limited amount of information about many cases. Qualitative research, on the other hand, seeks a lot of information about a limited number of cases. In this case, the choice of research strategy depends at least in which part and what the researcher wants to achieve.             This type of research will utilize case study.  When a person make a detailed study about one person or unit over a considerable period of time, he/she is engaging in what is known as a case study.  (1998,) states that case studies involve looking one or more cases, which are “studied n detail, using whatever (research) method seems appropriate”. It aims to develop full understanding of the case as possible and is not linked with any particular research technique. This method involves the researcher to inquire deeper and examine thorough behaviors of a person or a circumstance. It is also noted how these behaviors change as the individual or circumstance adapts and reacts to the environment. Furthermore, it includes the discovery and identification of all the important variables which have contributed to the history or development of the chosen subject. This means that the researcher is going to gather data which include the past experiences and present condition of the subject as well as the environment. It will attempt to find out how these factors relate to one another and how they have affected the subject. Case studies may sometimes involve small social units such as clubs, a family, a school, or any group of individual who shares common interest. The researcher who uses the case study research design needs such respondents as he/she searches for solutions of some important problems. Researches in the field of guidance illustrate the use of case studies to solve some of the most important problems and queries. Accounts of respondents’ thoughts, dreams, and actions are noted down to provide an insight into human behavior which may lead to the discovery of new findings not known before. The case study method refers several advantages. The greatest advantage a researcher can derive in this method is its depth. By digging deeper into the whole personality of an individual or group or a certain situation, the researcher can probably tell some imperative knowledge or explanation such as on the kind of behavior or attitudes. Another advantage that can be derived from case studies is the opportunity of the researcher to gain insights into the basic concepts of human behavior or any given body of knowledge. Through intensive investigation, it is possible that the researcher may come across previous unsuspected relationships of variables. On the contrary, case studies also have few disadvantages. Its depth can mean its lack of breadth. Generally, it is difficult to generalize findings to include other people when these findings have been drawn only from a certain fragment of a given population. In short, it is not really a representative of the entire population. Hence, it lacks of extent. As a researcher, the possibility of subjectivity or even prejudiced is high. This is because there might be preconceived events, things, and people or any other condition that may affect the flow of the research. Such preconceptions may also affect the insight and the bias might determine what behaviors to be studied or to be ignored. It will likewise affect the procedures of interpreting the observation, which will not be scientific. But in the long run, these situations can be avoided and solved by being objective at all times. The researcher opted to use this kind of research purpose considering the desire of the researcher to obtain first hand data from the respondents so as to formulate rational and sound conclusions and recommendations for the study.   Subject of the Study Population, or the subject of this study, is defined as a set of categorized group that can be people, objects or any items from which the selection can be made to be used in statistical treatment such as a group of young individuals, manager and literary books. Herein, the researcher will used the sampling method which is defined as a strategic way of choosing the most appropriate sample or the most suitable part of the population for determination of the characteristics or restriction.  The researcher, in choosing subjects or respondents for the topic at hand, is usually thought of to have the power over who the respondents of the study will be. Such a task would have been easier, except a researcher cannot simply choose out of urge; the subjects must be selected carefully with the intention of having subjects who each posses characteristics that, when put together, will represent a community. It is not only themselves, whom these subjects will represent, but the bigger whole or the whole population. The characteristics which the researcher has chosen them for will determine which part of the community they belong and what part of the community they are representing.   Sampling Procedure             In this research paper, it is important to distinguish and determines the respondents of the study. In this manner, the researcher will have the respondents through a sample. Sample is known as a predetermined element of a statistical population that undergoes specific study. In conducting a research this population is called a set of respondents that has been selected from a greater number of populations for survey purposes. This research study used the random sampling method. Random sampling is the selection of respondents in a casual condition provided that it mainly caters to the key characteristics needed for a population.   Data Collection Procedure Primary data are gathered with the aid of the predetermined questionnaire consistently distributed to the respondents. The researcher used a checklist. This type of survey questionnaire is categorically considered as close-ended questionnaire. Close-ended survey questionnaire are also used in obtaining the information relevant to this study in order to draw out substantial amount of information yet limited in number. In administering the tool, respondents gathered self-reported information through self-administration of questions in a paper-pencil format. This method is useful in collecting data for the following reasons: subjects were asked to respond to the same set of questions in the same order, they had the same set of options for their responses, and it is economical. In a questionnaire using closed-ended questions, the researcher offered a list of answers that will be checked or chosen by the respondent. Close-ended questionnaires are not limited two alternative replies of true or false from which the subjects choose the one that matched the appropriate answer. Further, close-ended questionnaires facilitate easy tabulation and orderly treatment of data. The questionnaires are more convenient and provide fairly straightforward information relatively useful for the solutions of the problem posed. It also served as an aid for deliberate and immediate tallying because of the limitation of time for the prescribed duration of the research investigation. The researcher opted to use the questionnaire as a tool since it is easy to construct having the rules and principles of construction are easy to follow. Moreover, copies of the questionnaire could reach a considerable number of respondents either by mail or by personal distribution. Generally, responses to a questionnaire are objectified and standardized and these make tabulation easy. But more importantly, the respondents’ replies are of their own free will because there is no interviewer to influence them. This is one way to avoid biases, particularly the interviewers’ bias. The researcher will also use graph and charts for data presentation. Data analysis employed in the study will be carried out in steps. Every data form will be carefully read in order to have an idea of the whole results concept. The text will then be read again and divided into meaningful units as the researcher see fit. Data will be condensed and formed into syntheses which will be integrated to form the address the research questions. Once the data has been collected and collated, the final task is to interpret the results. It is important to exercise caution when interpreting results and drawing conclusions from data, since it relates only to a sample. The more carefully the sample size and make-up has been selected, the more value the final data will have. However, the results can only ever be a guide and will never predict totally accurately. There will be a certain amount of statistical error in any results and the conclusions drawn from those results. For this study, the researcher, after gathering the relevant data needed, it will be collated together with published studies from different local and foreign universities and articles from educational and social science journals. Afterwards, a critical analysis will be rendered on the collected documents and materials. A summary of all the information gathered would also be provided by the researcher, as well as a conclusion and insightful recommendations.   Statistical Instrument When the entire survey questionnaires have been collected, the researcher used statistics to analyze all the data. This research will utilize the frequency, percentage, weighted mean, and correlation statistics in order to determine the differences and relationship of the responses of the respondents regarding their perception on the variables of the study. It is important to note that these statistical instruments are to be used on the survey method alone. In detail, the following statistical instruments will be used. Frequency – This is the total of similar responses acquired per item and asked in the survey questionnaire. Percentage – The percentage is used to compare and present the findings on the frequency of responses obtained from the questionnaire. The formula is:                           P = _n   x 100          N               Where;           P – Percentage                                     n – Number of responses falling under a particular category                                     N – Total number of respondents             Leadership and Adult Learning: the missing link   Research Design and Instrument             In order to come up with the most suitable research approaches and strategies for this study, the research process “onion” is undertaken. This is because conducting a research is like peeling the back layers of an onion – in order to come to the central issue of how to collect the necessary data needed to answer the research questions and objectives, important layers should be first peeled away. With the said process, the researcher was able to create an outline on what measures are most appropriate to be applied in the study. The researcher uses the qualitative research design utilizing the descriptive research method, which is primarily concerned with describing the nature or conditions of the current situation in detail ( 1994). According to  (2000), the qualitative research approach is most appropriate when conducting descriptive and exploratory study in order to quantify data that seem immeasurable, such as feelings, beliefs, and thoughts. Qualitative research is defined by  (2003) as “a subjective approach which includes examining and reflecting on perceptions in order to gain an understanding of social and human activities”  The emphasis is on describing rather than on judging. This study employs qualitative research method, since it intends to find and build theories that would explain the relationship of one variable with another variable through qualitative elements. These qualitative elements does not have standard measures, rather they are behavior, attitudes, opinions, and beliefs. So, the goals of qualitative research are primarily to advance new theory, interpret the significance of individual events and giving voice to particular groups.             So, the goals of qualitative research are primarily to advance new theory, interpret the significance of individual events and giving voice to particular groups. In contrast quantitative research is primarily about testing theory, identifying broad patterns and making predictions. Quantitative researchers are interested in how variables co-vary across cases. Therefore, they seek a limited amount of information about many cases. Qualitative research, on the other hand, seeks a lot of information about a limited number of cases. In this case, the choice of research strategy depends at least in which part and what the researcher wants to achieve.             This type of research will utilize case study.  When a person make a detailed study about one person or unit over a considerable period of time, he/she is engaging in what is known as a case study. Punch (1998, p. 150) states that case studies involve looking one or more cases, which are “studied n detail, using whatever (research) method seems appropriate”. It aims to develop full understanding of the case as possible and is not linked with any particular research technique. This method involves the researcher to inquire deeper and examine thorough behaviors of a person or a circumstance. It is also noted how these behaviors change as the individual or circumstance adapts and reacts to the environment. Furthermore, it includes the discovery and identification of all the important variables which have contributed to the history or development of the chosen subject. This means that the researcher is going to gather data which include the past experiences and present condition of the subject as well as the environment. It will attempt to find out how these factors relate to one another and how they have affected the subject. Case studies may sometimes involve small social units such as clubs, a family, a school, or any group of individual who shares common interest. The researcher who uses the case study research design needs such respondents as he/she searches for solutions of some important problems. Researches in the field of guidance illustrate the use of case studies to solve some of the most important problems and queries. Accounts of respondents’ thoughts, dreams, and actions are noted down to provide an insight into human behavior which may lead to the discovery of new findings not known before. The case study method refers several advantages. The greatest advantage a researcher can derive in this method is its depth. By digging deeper into the whole personality of an individual or group or a certain situation, the researcher can probably tell some imperative knowledge or explanation such as on the kind of behavior or attitudes. Another advantage that can be derived from case studies is the opportunity of the researcher to gain insights into the basic concepts of human behavior or any given body of knowledge. Through intensive investigation, it is possible that the researcher may come across previous unsuspected relationships of variables. On the contrary, case studies also have few disadvantages. Its depth can mean its lack of breadth. Generally, it is difficult to generalize findings to include other people when these findings have been drawn only from a certain fragment of a given population. In short, it is not really a representative of the entire population. Hence, it lacks of extent. As a researcher, the possibility of subjectivity or even prejudiced is high. This is because there might be preconceived events, things, and people or any other condition that may affect the flow of the research. Such preconceptions may also affect the insight and the bias might determine what behaviors to be studied or to be ignored. It will likewise affect the procedures of interpreting the observation, which will not be scientific. But in the long run, these situations can be avoided and solved by being objective at all times. The researcher opted to use this kind of research purpose considering the desire of the researcher to obtain first hand data from the respondents so as to formulate rational and sound conclusions and recommendations for the study.   Subject of the Study Population, or the subject of this study, is defined as a set of categorized group that can be people, objects or any items from which the selection can be made to be used in statistical treatment such as a group of young individuals, manager and literary books. Herein, the researcher will used the sampling method which is defined as a strategic way of choosing the most appropriate sample or the most suitable part of the population for determination of the characteristics or restriction.  The researcher, in choosing subjects or respondents for the topic at hand, is usually thought of to have the power over who the respondents of the study will be. Such a task would have been easier, except a researcher cannot simply choose out of urge; the subjects must be selected carefully with the intention of having subjects who each posses characteristics that, when put together, will represent a community. It is not only themselves, whom these subjects will represent, but the bigger whole or the whole population. The characteristics which the researcher has chosen them for will determine which part of the community they belong and what part of the community they are representing.   Sampling Procedure             In this research paper, it is important to distinguish and determines the respondents of the study. In this manner, the researcher will have the respondents through a sample. Sample is known as a predetermined element of a statistical population that undergoes specific study. In conducting a research this population is called a set of respondents that has been selected from a greater number of populations for survey purposes. This research study used the random sampling method. Random sampling is the selection of respondents in a casual condition provided that it mainly caters to the key characteristics needed for a population.   Data Collection Procedure Primary data are gathered with the aid of the predetermined questionnaire consistently distributed to the respondents. The researcher used a checklist. This type of survey questionnaire is categorically considered as close-ended questionnaire. Close-ended survey questionnaire are also used in obtaining the information relevant to this study in order to draw out substantial amount of information yet limited in number. In administering the tool, respondents gathered self-reported information through self-administration of questions in a paper-pencil format. This method is useful in collecting data for the following reasons: subjects were asked to respond to the same set of questions in the same order, they had the same set of options for their responses, and it is economical. In a questionnaire using closed-ended questions, the researcher offered a list of answers that will be checked or chosen by the respondent. Close-ended questionnaires are not limited two alternative replies of true or false from which the subjects choose the one that matched the appropriate answer. Further, close-ended questionnaires facilitate easy tabulation and orderly treatment of data. The questionnaires are more convenient and provide fairly straightforward information relatively useful for the solutions of the problem posed. It also served as an aid for deliberate and immediate tallying because of the limitation of time for the prescribed duration of the research investigation. The researcher opted to use the questionnaire as a tool since it is easy to construct having the rules and principles of construction are easy to follow. Moreover, copies of the questionnaire could reach a considerable number of respondents either by mail or by personal distribution. Generally, responses to a questionnaire are objectified and standardized and these make tabulation easy. But more importantly, the respondents’ replies are of their own free will because there is no interviewer to influence them. This is one way to avoid biases, particularly the interviewers’ bias. The researcher will also use graph and charts for data presentation. Data analysis employed in the study will be carried out in steps. Every data form will be carefully read in order to have an idea of the whole results concept. The text will then be read again and divided into meaningful units as the researcher see fit. Data will be condensed and formed into syntheses which will be integrated to form the address the research questions. Once the data has been collected and collated, the final task is to interpret the results. It is important to exercise caution when interpreting results and drawing conclusions from data, since it relates only to a sample. The more carefully the sample size and make-up has been selected, the more value the final data will have. However, the results can only ever be a guide and will never predict totally accurately. There will be a certain amount of statistical error in any results and the conclusions drawn from those results. For this study, the researcher, after gathering the relevant data needed, it will be collated together with published studies from different local and foreign universities and articles from educational and social science journals. Afterwards, a critical analysis will be rendered on the collected documents and materials. A summary of all the information gathered would also be provided by the researcher, as well as a conclusion and insightful recommendations.   Statistical Instrument When the entire survey questionnaires have been collected, the researcher used statistics to analyze all the data. This research will utilize the frequency, percentage, weighted mean, and correlation statistics in order to determine the differences and relationship of the responses of the respondents regarding their perception on the variables of the study. It is important to note that these statistical instruments are to be used on the survey method alone. In detail, the following statistical instruments will be used. Frequency – This is the total of similar responses acquired per item and asked in the survey questionnaire. Percentage – The percentage is used to compare and present the findings on the frequency of responses obtained from the questionnaire. The formula is:                           P = _n   x 100          N               Where;           P – Percentage                                     n – Number of responses falling under a particular category                                     N – Total number of respondents                                                   Credit:ivythesis.typepad.com

Leadership and Adult Learning: the missing link

Leadership and Adult Learning: the missing link Research Design and Instrument In order to come up with the most suitabl...

Employee motivation in international business organizations: the case of PCCW workplace learning

Employee motivation in international business organizations: the case of PCCW on workplace learning       CHAPTER I Introduction               Human resources management and its functional applications have changed at the turn of the century. There are significant changes, challenges and opportunities that are faced by human resources managers. A considerable number of companies have developed into an essential part of the period of global competition, increasing development, improved business paradigms, and corporate reorganization. The continuing transformation from the traditional industrial framework with its hierarchical companies to a worldwide, knowledge-founded financial system and intelligent corporations that alters the ideas regarding the agreement of rights and duties involving employers and employees and the progressive expansion of more adaptable pool of talent and a body of workforce, necessitates human resource (HR) purposes to realign and relocate itself in the vicinity of these social and economic drivers. Furthermore, the world as well as national economies and markets are different from those of a decade ago. As paradigms have changed, the characteristics affecting human resources management are subject for assessment in order to provide the needs of the organization, its market and especially its people. It is also to keep up with relevance to the latest or emerging trends and strategies that contribute to the whole success of the organization and its operations. In today’s rapid development and technological transformation, the world of big international business industries where transactions and other business operations are governed by law, cultural differences and mutual trust, efficiency counts largely as a common entrepreneurial aim.             The labor force is characterized by people who are oriented to productivity and performance in the basis of their skills and capabilities. Changes in the nature of managerial work over the last years have a reflective and alarming impact on the roles of the HR managers within the new modes of organizational flexibility as well as leveling power of information technology. Generally, the emergence of HRM as a universal remedy for integrating business strategy and people management has exposed personnel practitioners to a fresh set of role challenges and managerial expectations that have stressed out the gaps between the HR language and reality. Further, the attempts to capture the changing environment of the HR personnel roles in response to major transformations in the workplace, the associated rise of HRM, and the competitive advantage of the whole organization through its manpower are few aspects that HR functions embark upon.   Statement of the Problem             It is said that the PCCW Management have blossomed on its local / domestic home country and moved on to internationalize their trend to some other countries / continents because of their effective methods of motivating their stuff. Hence, the causes of this success must be investigated and lessons must be learned and derived from this study.   Purpose of the Study This study will be conducted in order to determine the success factors of the PCCW Management in internationalizing their trend to other countries / continents through their effective staff motivation strategies, and provide meaningful lessons.             This study will also aim to increase the awareness and provide a better understanding of the issues and problems concerning most companies and organizations in order to contribute an effective approach in addressing their staff motivation problems.   Significance of the Study If the success factors of the PCCW Management in internationalizing their trend to other countries / continents through their effective staff motivation strategies will be determined, this study will be a benefit to other multinational companies experiencing problems gaining ground to other parts of the world. Also, if effectiveness is supported, this study will be significant in developing underachieving multinational companies and organizations as productive and effective entities in the future.   Research Questions Specifically this study will address the following questions: 1.            What are the motivational factors and other related factors that affect employee motivation on learning exemplified by employees of PCCW? 2.            What are the incentive preferences of employees of PCCW in relation to workplace learning? 3.            How effective are these incentive system when applied to the process of learning?       CHAPTER II Review of Related Literature   The wide ranges of literatures related to human resources management as well as various incidents affecting its totality are extensive. Given with this fact, this chapter goes over the related literatures conducted on the area of study. By embarking on such pursuit, the research may be guided accordingly by firstly discovering where the research is coming from, what and how much have been studied regarding the topic and what it is yet to tackle.  Besides providing background to the study, this study will provide the necessary theoretical and conceptual aspects in order for the research to stand credible. References from this segment of the paper are a product of broad researching and information retrieval.   Overview of the Company: PCCW             The largest integrated communications company in Hong Kong, PCCW was founded in 1994 and currently headed by Richard Li as Chairman. It offers key telecommunication services, business e-solutions, infrastructure, and television and media content including fixed-line, IPTV, mobile, Internet, ICT solutions, global communications and infrastructure. The Company also manages Internet Data Centers and Contact Centers. Aside from its Hong Kong, Mainland China and Macau offices, PCCW’s operation extends to various countries namely Taiwan, Malaysia, Saudi Arabia, Singapore, Korea, Japan, United States, and United Kingdom and still growing. The revenue of PCCW as recorded in its Interim Report 2007 accounted to HK,607 million for the six months (January to June 2007). Now, PCCW employs approximately 15,400 workers.   The Concept of Motivation Motivation is an important element to every organization, as this could affect the productivity and the morale of the staff. Lack of motivation will cause high staff turnover, high rate of absenteeism, poor performance, not willing to attend the training course, etc. If the hotel managers understand the employee’s underlying learning motivator, it can improve the customer satisfaction in the long run ( 1999). It is the role of HRD to implement different kind of rewards system or recognition system in order to maintain the morale.  (2000) stated that “motivation is a process not a result” (). By understanding the motivation theories, it also assists HRD to prepare a better structure of training planning and design in an organization. It is fundamental to understand the motivation factor in order to examine the relationship between rewards system and learning attitude of the people. There are different perceptions and definitions of “motivation”.  Some people might think that motivation is a view of personal trait as some have or some might not have it (1998).  Motivation can be defined as the willingness to exert high levels of effort toward organizational goals, conditioned by the effort’s ability to satisfy some individual need ( 1998).  (1993) also defined motivation will cause people to act or behave in certain ways. Furthermore,  defines motivation as ‘the degree to which an individual wants and chooses to engage in certain specified behaviors’ (1999). From this theory,  identifies four common characteristics which underline the above definition of motivation: <ul style="margin-top: 0in; margin-bottom: 0in" type="disc"> <li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%"> Motivation is typified as an individual phenomenon. Every person is unique and all the major theories of motivation allow for this uniqueness to be demonstrated in one way or another. </li> </ul>   <ul style="margin-top: 0in; margin-bottom: 0in" type="disc"> <li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%"> Motivation is described, usually, as intentional. Motivation is assumed to be under the worker’s control, and behaviours that are influenced by motivation, such as effort expended, are seen as choices of action. </li> </ul>   <ul style="margin-top: 0in; margin-bottom: 0in" type="disc"> <li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%"> Motivation is multifaceted. The two factors of greatest importance are (1) what gets people activated (arousal); and (2) the force of an individual to engage in desired behaviour (direction or choice of behaviour). </li> </ul>   <ul style="margin-top: 0in; margin-bottom: 0in" type="disc"> <li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%"> The purpose of motivational theories is to predict behaviour. Motivation is not the behaviour itself, and it is not performance. Motivation concerns action, and the internal and external forces that influence a person’s choice of action. </li> </ul> From the definitions mentioned, it can be analysed that motivation is necessary for the growth of the employee in the organisation. The employee starts his/her career through learning, basically the culture of the organisation and his/her responsibilities. Motivation is a vital element to learning because if an organisation does not possess the ability to motivate its employees, the knowledge within the organisation is not practically used to the fullest (1999). Thus, in every successful learning organisation, finding the factors that will motivate its employees to partake in continuous learning and to take advantage of this knowledge, accordingly, becomes their aim (1999). The HR manager evaluates and motivates its employees. It is believed that motivation is the key to beneficial retention of employees to work and to like their work. The theories of motivation gave some ideas of how a motivation program can be implemented within an organisation. This can be started by surveying the employees and ask them what they think about the company. Through research conducted by the manager, the basic needs of employees can be identified and satisfied through the development and implementation of motivation programs. The initial act that should be done is to make employees realise their personal worth by empowering them. For instance, employees should be given the freedom to voice out their opinions, although there should be a standard on how conversations should be ethically observed, as well as respect to superiors. Former General Manager of General Electric, Jack Welch uses this approach to empower employees. Through this, little and huge issues that affect employees everyday work behaviours were identified and solved (1998). This is fundamentally a great way to identify employees’ needs. On the other hand, leadership also plays a fundamental part in motivating employees. Today, leadership serves as a critical element of organisational success. In motivating employees to learn, leaders must set a way towards a given goal, inspire, or motivate them to follow (2003). The HR manager should know how to recognise success and how to praise those who deserve praises. Several studies found positive linkage between leadership styles and job satisfaction, except for the initiating structure leadership style, which similarly shows negative effect on job satisfaction (1993; 1997;  2004). Deserving employees can be effectively praised and recognised through awards and bonuses. Developing a program were a particular employee with good performance would be branded as employee of the week can also be a good idea. Of course, this should also come with small rewards to make employees feel that their efforts pay off. Further, motivation is the interaction between the individual and the situation.  Under different situations, individual will respond differently.  It all depends on the individual motivational drive or individual needs and varies from situation to situation ( 1997).  It also leads motivation treated as a need-satisfying process; an unsatisfied need creates tension that stimulates drives within the individuals.  These drives generate search behaviour to find particular goals that, if attained, will satisfy the need and lead to the reduction of tension (1998).  Figure 2.2     Motivation Theory                           To understand better the various terms and forms of motivation to learn, it is useful to review different kinds of motivational theories in this chapter. There are several types of motivation theories. Among these, the best-known and most typical examples are Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, Herzberg’s motivation and hygiene factors, McClelland’s three needs theory and Vroom’s expectancy theory ( 1991). These are used on this research because of their proven relativity and applicability to the concept of this research. Also, they are the most common theories in relation to employee motivation and reward system.   2.1.1     Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Abraham Maslow (1908 – 1970) was a psychologist and one of the most well-known motivation theories is Hierarchy of Needs. Robbins (1998) mentioned that Maslow generalized that every human beings exists a hierarchy of five needs, which are: <li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%"> Physiological – Food, water, shelter and other bodily needs</li> <li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%"> Safety – Security and protection from physical and emotional harms</li> <li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%"> Social / Belonging – Acceptance and friendship</li> <li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%"> Esteem – Internal esteem factors like self-respect; achievement and external esteem factors like status, recognition and attention.</li> <li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%"> Self-actualization – Growth, achieving one’s potential and self-fulfillment</li> In order to apply an appropriate rewards system in an organization, it is essential to understand the idea of human needs and Maslow’s hierarchy of needs can reflect the five general human needs. The figure below illustrates the graphical representation of the most popular motivational model – Maslow’s hierarchy of needs.    Figure 2.3 Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Model                 This theory is based on a progression hypothesis and it called content theory. Content theory seeks to examine the specific factors that motivate behaviours. In Maslow’s theory, people progress up the hierarchy as they successively gratify each level of need. On this research, this theory will serve the purposes of relating the need of motivating people to learn.   2.1.2     Herzberg’s motivation and hygiene factors theory Motivation-hygiene theory was proposed by another psychologist Frederick Herzberg. It emphasised that the needs satisfactions are categorized into intrinsic and extrinsic factors. According to  (1993), motivation can take place in either intrinsic motivation or extrinsic motivation: <ul style="margin-top: 0in; margin-bottom: 0in" type="disc"> <li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%"> Intrinsic motivation – the self-generated factors and influence people to behave in a particular way or direction.  Intrinsic factors motivate us from within personal interest, desire and fulfilment.  It has long-term and deeper effect.</li> <li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%"> Extrinsic motivation – To satisfy indirect or instrumental needs.  It arises from some kind of ‘Do this’ and you will get that motivation ( 2001).  It has an immediate and powerful effect but will not last long.</li> </ul> To a certain extent, part of the Herzberg’s theory is parallel to Maslow’s theory. It can be seen that the hygiene factors in the lower levels of Maslow’s hierarchy and the motivators in the higher levels. However, unlike Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, Herzberg’s two-factor theory argued that individual needs satisfaction does not process in a hierarchy (1999). The motivation-hygiene theory needs to hold management not only to provide hygiene factors and avoid employee dissatisfaction, but also provide factors intrinsic to the work itself in order for employees to be satisfied with their jobs. It can be argued that it does not mean that the employee is motivated to learn.  From Herzberg’s theory, it encourages the organisation to enlarge and enrich work responsibilities and pay more attention to goal-setting, appraisal, reward and recognition system. According to  (1993), it applied the Herzberg’s theories in one of the hotels in Cyprus.  From the concept of quality and guest satisfaction level, it shown that Herzberg’s theory is more relevant than Maslow’s. Will this be applicable in the Hong Kong hotel industry?   2.1.3     McClelland Three need theory McClelland’s theory of needs that focuses on three needs: achievement, power and affiliation.  Need of achievement means people are striving personal achievement rather than the rewards.  People are highly motivated by challenge and competitive work situation (1995).  Need of power is the desire to have impact or influence or control others.  Need of affiliation is the desire of friendship; prefer to keep good relationship instead of competitive environment (1998).  In McClelland theory, it contends that people with a high need for achievement make good managers. For instance, people with high need for achievement will eager to obtain feedback on their performance, willing to solve problem and exhibit moderate levels of risk taking ( 1992). In view of Herzberg and McClelland’s motivation theories, it shown that both theories are not defined ‘money’ as motivator.  It means financial rewards are not the key motivation factor. On the other hand,  (1991) disagreed that the need of affiliation is more important than monetary rewards.  (1987) was conducted a research in Hong Kong, it found that the primary motivator in Hong Kong is the financial reward.  (1988) also stated that monetary compensation is the key motivator for Hong Kong’s staffs. It can be argued that how far it can motivate the staff to learn by using the financial reward for the hotel employees. Besides, hotel management is necessarily to understand the key motivator on learning in order to apply the effective reward system. McClelland three needs theory (1999) is more focused on different kind of non-monetary human needs.  (1945) commented that these three needs are more important than monetary compensation in motivating employees. It is worthwhile to look into the McClelland three needs theory in order to examine the importance of the non-monetary reward system.    2.1.4     Vroom’s Expectancy Theory The staff’s expectancy cannot be ignored. Therefore, Vroom’s expectancy theory will be discussed in the following section. This theory is focused on the personal perceptions and it can reflect the individual concept instead of only concentrated on the monetary reward. Vroom’s expectancy theory of motivation focuses on personal perceptions of the performance process, ‘the more motivated the worker to perform effectively, the more effective his performance’ ( 1970).  Expectancy theory argues that the strength of an expectation that the act will be followed by a given outcome and on the attractiveness of that outcome to the individual (1998). Expectancy is the belief that effort leads to performance, for example, ‘If I try harder, I can do better.’  It reflected this theory focuses on the following relationships: 1.    Effort – Performance relationship – Individual perceived that exert a certain amount of effort will lead to performance; 2.    Performance – Reward relationship – Individual believes that achieve the certain performance level will lead to attainment of a desired outcome; and 3.    Rewards – Personal goals relationship – Organizational rewards satisfy individual personal goals or needs.   Figure 2.4 Vroom’s Expectancy Theory Model           According to the expectancy theory, employees expect and need to be rewarded according to the work they do, and will help them to develop their capability, help them to work up to a higher level so that they can be better rewarded (2002). Employees expect organisations to have compensation systems that they perceive as being fair and commensurate with their skills and expectations. The compensation may, in some cases, act as employee motivators. These compensations that employees receive may be value-added compensation including direct compensation, such as salary, incentives and commissions; and indirect compensation, such as insurance benefits, employee recognition programs, flexible work hours, and vacation benefits. Similar to Maslow’s theory of needs hierarchy, the expectancy theory may also be applied in the organisational context. More specifically, it could possess vital implications with regard to corporate reward system as according to  and (2001): Ø  a clear connection between rewards and performance must be determined, Ø  the connection between rewards and performance must be relayed to the human resources, Ø  the rewards must be provided based on performance, Ø  the rewards must fulfil the specific needs of the employees so as to draw out a high level of motivation, and, Ø  barriers in organizations that hinder excellent performance must be eradicated to ensure motivated behaviour. If the staffs in an organisation believe that it needs to put effort and lead to performance in order to achieve certain rewards and personal goals, reward system could motivate them to learn.   Learning and its Importance to Employee and Organisation (1999) agreed organisational learning as associated with the transfer of managerial knowledge from subsidiaries to the parent company. It can also be the case that the transfer is from one overseas affiliate to another. In addition, organisational learning is believed to be part of the core competencies that will allow multinational companies to adapt and succeed in international operations ( 1995). This suggests that organisational learning is important in order for organisations to have better understanding to the underpinnings of the market that they have decided to penetrate as well as the culture of the industry that they decided to operate into. For them, without direct involvement of employers, little education and training of staff members will occur that will have an effect on their future employability. The philosophy of learning through experience and learning by doing have a lengthy association with adult and workplace learning (1993), and tend to foreground individuals and their lived realities. To quote (2004, ), Whilst the accounts of individuals can shed light on how people learn at work and can help make sense of diverse situations, they can also mask the ways in which opportunities and barriers are structured and unevenly distributed across organizations and different groups. It is important to understand the extent to which the organization of work influences workplace learning because benefits in terms, for example, of career progression and self-confidence can accrue to those who have access to a variety of learning opportunities and who have the autonomy necessary for self-direction. Those employees whose knowledge and skills remain tacit are more likely to have their competence underestimated and their contribution to the organization undervalued.   The role employees can play in improving an organization’s effectiveness requires a focus on the types of knowledge and skills learned at work as well as on how they can be supplied, supported, and developed (2004). With this, there is a need for HR managers to have systematic training programs that address the requirement of changes and trends within the industry the organization operates.  (2005) argue that efficient training and development mechanisms can facilitate companies in the acquisition of a staff who posses the right combination of skills and motivations. The different types of training activities include the orientation of new employees, helping them to gain innovative skills, and strengthening skills that are present at hand.   Companies worldwide implement various trends in training as a response to the emerging culture of modernized workforce. Goldstein and Gilliam (in Hornsby and Kuratko 2005) recommend training to adjust to four major trends that affect organizational function and management. These trends include the changes in the demographic characteristics of the workforce, more sophisticated and improved technology, career movements from manufacturing to service-oriented jobs, and the inevitable impacts of the global markets. With these affecting trends, managers today should concentrate in training their manpower in order to deal with the challenges as well as the latest developments in whatever industry they operate into. More or less, the existing trends in HRM today are said to be relevant in the international business setting because it affects the general performance of manager’s administrative roles.             Learning organisation is rooted on the principle that a successful organisation must be able to continuously adapt and learn as it consistently operates, to have the ability to respond to the emerging changes and new trends in its immediate environment, and for the purposes of growth (2004; 2000; 1990). According to  (1993) and(1998), the learning organization is an institution that learns powerfully and collectively, continually transforming itself to better manage and use knowledge for corporate success, empowering people within and outside the organization to learn as they work and to utilize technology to maximize learning and production. The conceptual foundations of learning organization are firmly based on systems theory (1990) and its practical application to managing a business has evolved out of strategic planning and strategic management ( 1985;  1994), which have recognized that organizational learning is the underlying source of strategic change (1988;1993). In recent years, several industry leaders have begun to focus attention on organisational learning. Business leaders particularly in the hospitality industry must alter the environment to support and encourage learning, connect learning to business operations, communicate the importance of the learning organisation, demonstrate their commitment to learning, transform the organisational culture to one of continuous learning and improvement, and establish organisation-wide strategies for learning in order to make the transition from the traditional to the learning organisation. In addition, eliminating organisational bureaucracy, encourage employee involvement and embrace continuous, adaptive improvement-oriented learning approaches throughout the organisation is also important in changing organisational phase.  (1994) and  (1993) confirmed that learning organisations tend to have the following characteristics in common. First, they provide continuous learning opportunities as they use learning to reach their goals. Secondly, they link individual performance with organisational performance. Thirdly, they foster inquiry and dialogue, making it safe for people to share openly and take risks. Also, they embrace creative tension as a source of energy and renewal. Lastly, they are continuously aware of and interact with their environment.  (1998) argued that learning organisations have the following core strategic building blocks: 1.            Mission and Vision – Clarity and employee support of the mission, strategy, and espoused values of the organisation. 2.            Leadership – Leadership that is perceived as empowering employees, encouraging an experimenting culture, and showing strong commitment to the organisation. 3.            Experimentation – A strong culture of experimentation that is rewarded and supported at all levels in the organisation. 4.            Transfer of Knowledge – The ability of an organisation to transfer knowledge within and from outside the organisation and to learn from failures. 5.            Teamwork and Cooperation – An emphasis on teamwork and group problem-solving as the mode of operation and for developing innovative ideas. Similarly,  (2002) added five ideals of the learning organisation: a) organization-wide free flows of ideas, know-how, identity and spirit; b) ongoing collective transformation and self-improvement; c) dispersed learning leadership, climate creation and facilitation; d) open dialogue engaging multiple perspectives; and e) protean career contracts. The essential principle on which many interpretations of the learning organisation is based is the thought that through learning, an organisation is able to adapt, develop, transform and change to meet the needs of itself, its people and society. Here, learning is the key to transformation. This is a very much holistic approach to strategy and to learning which sees it as linking individuals and groups in an organisational web that responds, reacts and transforms in an ongoing process. This means focusing less on specific events and more on the ongoing and underlying patterns and movements for change.      The significance for policy that workplace learning has in any given country and perceptions of its contribution to competitiveness, are dependent on the nature of the vocational education and training system, the relationship between the state, labour and capital, and the production system (2004). From the extensive use of various sources, it is practically acceptable to wrap up that the main idea behind learning organisation is the recognition of the practical applications and importance of learning. Learning is an important factor that contributes to the development of new innovations as well as vital instrument in addressing organisational change. As there are necessary, countless, and profitable consequences visible, learning is very much relevant particularly in linking the holistic development of people and organisations as well as the overall processes involved in the general environment. The related mechanisms are also important in planning the future operations and activities of the organisation. Through learning, the organisation is able to identify needs, predict trends, eliminate risks, solve problems, and cope up with the challenges in the market.   2.2    Other factors that affect employee on learning According to Foley (2004), human resource development is now concerned not just with training but with broader issues of workplace learning and change, generating a new field of practice and study, organisational learning. Historically, the past 30 years have fundamentally altered the condition of adult education as well as philosophy about adult learning. There are disappearances of specific university extension education while universities have expanded their professional education offerings. Community-based education has had to become largely self-supporting, and so has become much more businesslike in both its organisation and course offerings ( 2004). Technical or vocational education similarly has long-drawn-out and diversified, adding ‘further education’ to its title in many countries. Numerous fields of practice have generated their own distinguishing forms of education and the management aspect is not kept apart.   Initially, learning is important to the employees and employers as this could increase the competitive power of an organisation. To implement an effective reward system to motivate employee on learning, it is not enough to only understand the relationship between reward system and motivation theories but also the other relevant factors that affect employee motivation to learn like adult learning and culture.    2.2.1     Adult learning Today, the adult education class strives to provide adult learners an opportunity to use and apply what they have learned. It encourages the learners to think critically and to constantly redefine the content and process of the learning experience. Adult education is also expected to heighten individual awareness of community issues, motivate learners to create opportunities, embrace new ideas and give direction to positive change.   In adult education and learning perspectives, an article written by  (1998 ;2002) identified five philosophies in adult education namely: liberal, progressive, behaviorist, humanist, and radical. With this particular fact, the argument of what kind of pedagogy will be used may be based in these given philosophies. However,  (2002) argued that these five philosophies provide a clear framework to understand the different definitions, goals, roles, concepts, methods and scholars within adult education. They noted that importance of realizing that in reality, the personal philosophies of every individual in education do not fit exactly into specific categories and that while majority of people may identify primarily with one philosophy, others may share elements of the others (2002).   Adult education is certainly affected by the ambiguity that characterizes the contemporary global situation today. Increasingly, there are difficult questions posed about what constitutes the field of adult education and what are its values and purposes ( 1997). In times when a greater number of adults coming from a diversity of backgrounds enter an increasing variety of programmes, another set of problems is emerging. The difficulty in coping with the current uncertainty is compounded by the nature of the contemporary situation, which itself is difficult to characterize and interpret. Whilst there is general agreement that the world is extremely witnessing profound economic, technological and cultural changes, there is less agreement on whether these constitute a continuation of quality education.   According to  (1999), adult learners in most situations have to plan from scratch, in other words, be self-creative. However, it is not enough that such learners are dependent to what they discover along the way. There is a need for them to validate the credibility and factualness of the knowledge they learned by themselves by using the standards of evaluation present in formal learning. Thus, the role of professional mentors in monitoring is important.  study clearly indicates that adult education uses both traditional and non-traditional pedagogical methods and guaranteed that the combination of both can obtain more positive results.   As people move from the ‘field’ of adult education to a ‘moorland’ of adult learning, so the guiding paradigms of adult education, its theory, purposes and practices, need reconfiguring and new conceptual resources are required to make sense of the contemporary conjuncture and of the place of adult education within that (1997).  affirmed that it would be difficult to argue that adult education can sustain itself, as it is presently constituted in the face of the challenges posed by late modernity/post-modernity.   As compared from other authors,  (1997) conducted his research focusing on the importance of interdisciplinarity and integrative learning in adult education. He deemed that experiential learning is more appropriate in adult education especially in terms of interdisciplinary studies, thus, involving interaction to either formal or non-formal learning environments. Adults learn in a variety of ways. Regardless of whether their learning is derived in a formal or an informal setting, the way in which they learn is closely connected with the diverse experiences in their life (1997). Previous adult education scholars like Lindeman and also practitioners noted the apparent tendency of adult learners to integrate their experiences in an attempt to assign meaning. This fact means that adult learners are inclined to self-learning and personal discovery.  study proves the mutual effectiveness of traditional and discovery or collaborative learning in adult education. Similarly, he acknowledged the unique abilities of both approaches especially in terms of knowledge assimilation of interdisciplinary subjects. The individual evaluation of teaching methods particularly the teacher in traditional classroom setting was also included. Based on the findings, an important factor in many adult students’ evaluation of teaching effectiveness is whether their instructor has been able to make connections between course content, the rest of their study program, and their own experience (1997;  1996). At the end of his research after his recommendation for further investigation,  suggested that interdisciplinary studies and integrative learning is more appropriately match the needs of learning (adult) population when its resources are manage carefully.   In the hotel industry, the employees are adult and the learning attitude and motivators are different from the children. To motivate the adult to learn, the implication method is different from children and necessary to understand adult learning process.  Knowles’ theory of andragogy is specifically for adult learning. It emphasised that adults are self-directed and expect to take responsibility for decision. According to  (1984), adults are themselves a richer resource for one another’s learning than youths. They are less dependent on the vicarious experiences of teachers, experts and textbooks. Adults have a broader foundation of past experience on which to base new learning. From their past experience, adults may have more fixed habits of thought and ways of doing a task, and sometimes this gets in the way of their better habits. When the trainer conducts training at the workplace and the participants are more experienced than the trainer, the participants are not willing to listen or even challenge the trainer, as they believe they are the experts. In this situation, trainer may consider allow the trainees to take the leading role and allow them to have more experience sharing. As  (1984) stated that adults learn more effectively through experiential techniques of education such as discussion or problem solving. Moreover, adult have a strong need to apply what being designed not only according to the needs of the learner, but also learner can apply new acquired skills or knowledge at workplace.    From Knowles’ adult theory, it shown that trainer is one of the reasons that motivate or de-motivate employee on learning. As adults are more experience, employees might not realize the importance of learning. On the other hand, it can also be seen that employee are motivated to learn if it is related and enhancing their knowledge. This is related to “skills and competency pay reward”. Employee believed that when there is enhancement (learning) among them, the skills and competency would lead to better reward. However, the concept and challenges of adult learning is deemed to be another interesting field of study in association with this research topic. Thus, it is expected that adult learning contains potentialities for further research.     2.2.2     Culture and learning Zammuto and O’Connor (1992) argue that culture is the single most important factor contributing for the success or failure of organisations. Some suggests a psychological theory of the link between organisational culture and business performance. Some perceived culture as a reward of work for if we sacrifice much to the organisation – a form of return to the exerted effort. Responsive culture provides the organisation the ability to be culturally inventive which is also related to leadership and top management has the responsibilities for building strong cultures. Leaders create the social reality of the organization; they mould the values and attend to the vision and mission of the organization. Relationship culture is also generally constructed and it reflects the meanings that are constituted in communication and that form commonly acknowledged definitions of the situation ( 1991).   In comparison to earlier times, organisational culture is more in demand and recognised at present ( 1992) due to competition, increased globalisation, diversified workforce and formation of business coalitions. This in turn led to product and strategy innovation; integration among organisational units to improve efficiency, quality, speed in manufacturing and distribution of services; introduction of new technologies; international transactions; facilitation of teamwork; and management of the diverse human resource (1994). In particular, an organisation’s shared history and stability can contribute to the internalisation and institutionalisation of specific attitudes in individuals (1987). Organisational culture is the pattern of basic assumptions that are invented, discovered or developed to help cope with problems of external adaptation and internal integration within an organization (1990). The patterns of assumptions may incorporate values, norms, rules, myths, stories and rituals; must have worked well enough in the past to be considered valid; and must be taught to new members as the correct way to perceive, think and feel in relation to the external and internal problems encountered by the organisation.   In a study conducted by  (2006), they assessed the employee reward preferences using samples from a total of 60 companies operating in two culturally distinct countries namely Finland and China particularly Hong Kong. They analysed their data in relation to cross-national framework with relevant focused on culture. In their results and discussion, they emphasized the benefits of adopting an inclusive reward management system that mainly includes a mixture of financial and non-financial rewards. The reward preferences of employees are deeply rooted on the idea that personal characteristics and other background factors beyond culture are very imperative to think about especially in the efforts of making organizational rewards system. What is not taken into account in this research is the identification of extent on how these rewards system might affect the total performance of the employees. Broadly analysed, there is a supposition that some rewards system might vary – may it be in form and application in specific areas of the organization. While it is true that rewards system are directed to the eventual progression of employee performance, it is also deemed that inappropriate implementation may create some difficulties. But then again, with the involvement of various essential factors in the creation and management of rewards system, such problems will be minimised if not totally eliminated. The recognition that culture is relative might also affect the rewards preferences of the companies. This means that the diversity in culture especially in multinational companies employing locals and foreign employees might significantly affect the whole process.   Similarly related,  (2005) in her critique of Hofstede’s model tested the applicability of the framework across four countries. She provided a cross-cultural comparison of rewards preferences and the findings reveal that human values particularly those that are bounded by national culture ignore the probable influence of a variety of other appropriate factors. Although Hofstede’s model is comprehensive both in practical and theoretical application, its contribution to the reward arena is subject to other culturally-related factors. The result of this study clarifies the argument of cultural relativity as raised in the study of  (2006).   The organisational culture affects the applicability of Knowles’ theory.  Knowles was an American Adult Educator and the creation of the andragogy was focused on North American point of view. To apply this theory in Hong Kong, it is important to understand the organizational culture. To effectively implement the reward system and motivate the employee to learn, the support from the organization is essential. It can be seen that the organization culture affects the HR strategy and the approach of the trainer. Schermerhon (1998) defined organisational culture as “the system of shared action values, and beliefs that develops within an organization and guides the behavior of its methods” (). Culture is invisible ( 1991). In Hong Kong, the student or even the adult learners are passive on learning due to the high power distance. High power distance means the subordinates would be unwilling to question superiors and would look to them for directions (1999). The adult learners show their respect to the trainer in a way that less question to be asked during the training session. The trainees are more willing to wait for the instruction from the trainer instead of proactively asking questions. Besides, due to the Confucian dynamism is a common cultural characteristic in Asia context (1999). Chinese people are ‘face-conscious’ and the sense of dignity; self-respect and prestige are strong (1991). During the training session, a need to maintain a sense of respect in front of the subordinates is essential (1989). Hence, it can be seen that reward system is not the only way to motivate the employees to learn, hotel management is necessary to consider the trainer’s approach and the culture. As stated in adult learning, the concept of culture and learning is another potential area of further research.         CHAPTER III Methodology   This chapter presents the methods and procedures utilized by the researcher in pursuing answers to the questions raised in the study. It also provides information on the description of the methods and procedures that were conceptualized and constructed in order to obtain the needed data and information that will be most useful to the study. Details on how the accumulated data were analyzed and interpreted as well as how the conclusion was drawn is discussed in full extent in this section.  This provides justification of the means in which the study was accomplished and at the same time helps in giving purpose and strength to the validity and reliability of the collected information that makes this particular research practice truthful and analytic. Specifically, this research chapter covers the following discussions: the research design and approach, the primary data collection, the secondary data collection, the research tools, the validity and reliability of the collected data, and the locale and database of the study.   Research Design and Approach             This study is descriptive in terms if its purpose, qualitative in terms of its process, case study in terms of methodology, and applied in terms of its outcome. The descriptive approach is used to describe the nature or condition (1994) of PCCW in relation to its motivational initiatives towards organizational learning. The advantages of this approach include quickness and flexibility and serve as an extension or a forerunner to a piece of exploratory research, a valuable research approach employed to discover what is happening; seek new insights; ask questions; and/or evaluate a phenomenon in a new light ( 2002). Further, the qualitative approach is used to measure useful data that are not immeasurable, such as feelings, beliefs, thoughts, and others. Qualitative information derived from the research then serves as basis for programme recommendations. Lastly, the case study approach is for the development of full understanding of the case as possible and is not linked with any particular research technique. This method involves the researcher to inquire deeper and examine thorough behaviors of a person or a circumstance. It also includes the discovery and identification of all the important variables which have contributed to the history or development of the chosen subject. This means that the researcher is going to gather data which include the past experiences and present condition of the subject as well as the environment. It will attempt to find out how these factors relate to one another and how they have affected the subject. Case study, like qualitative approach, allows a variety of information and facts to be collected and to be used for development of practical recommendations or solutions to problems identified.   Credit:ivythesis.typepad.com

Employee motivation in international business organizations: the case of PCCW workplace learning

Employee motivation in international business organizations: the case of PCCW on workplace learning CHAPTER I Introduction ...