Research Topics: Qualitative And Quantitative Method

Qualitative and quantitative method : Employee Training

Methodology Referring to the goal of this paper, the author will now demonstrate the methodology of the means of obtaining data for analysis and coming to the conclusion to meet the aim and objectives.  Though it does show ethnic concerns to those out there, interviews will be tied with the primary data research collection of this paper. The research described in this document is based on qualitative and quantitative method. The qualitative method permits a flexible and iterative approach, while the quantitative research method permits specification of dependent and independent variables and allows for longitudinal measures of subsequent performance of the research subject. During data gathering the choice and design of methods are constantly modified, based on ongoing analysis. This allows investigation of important new issues and questions as they arise, and allows the investigators to drop unproductive areas of research from the original research plan. The main purpose of this study is to identify effectiveness of employee training regarding first aid. Hence, the respondents of this study include 15 employees of Potomac Job Corp Centre. The employees are chosen because the respondents find them more reliable for this study. The true identity of the respondents is not revealed for confidential purposes.   Credit:ivythesis.typepad.com

Qualitative and quantitative method : Employee Training

Methodology Referring to the goal of this paper, the author will now demonstrate the methodology of the means of obtaining data for an...

Discrimination practices

My possible hypotheses are this: the discrimination practices in Midland High School regarding the Franconi’s teen-agers facilitate and establish the formation of ethnic gangs in the school; the racial discrimination practices in Midland High School regarding the Franconi’s teen-agers do not facilitate the creation of ethnic gangs in the school. In order to determine the real cause of this problem, certain procedures and strategies are needed in order to identify the root cause of the problem and to test the accuracy of my hypothesis.  There are a lot of methods and strategies to be used like: by studying and observing its behavior; or do a survey research. I’m focused on the observation of behavior since I find it very necessary to determine the different factors that cause this problem. In observing the behavior, certain procedures are needed like the use of qualitative or quantitative data analysis; qualitative and quantitative analytical procedures. Qualitative data includes text and videotaped behavior while quantitative data includes interval and ratio level measurements, such as IQ. In analysis however, qualitative analytical methods include: text coding, intuition, graphical displays, grounded theory methods, deconstruction, Levi-straussian analysis and dream analysis. Quantitative data analysis includes statistical techniques, multivariate methods. Given that the two qualitative/quantitative distinctions apply to both data and analysis, the two methods can be used and applied. The acquired data’s can however be used in analyzing the real situation in Midland High School. Theories may come and go but original texts remain for continued analysis and exegesis ( 1995). However, qualitative data (text) and quantitative data (numbers) can be analyzed by quantitative and qualitative methods. Consider the following table: Analysis   Data   Qualitative Quantitative Qualitative a b Quantitative c d Cell a, is the qualitative analysis of qualitative data. Interpretive studies of texts are of this kind. At the other extreme, studies of the cell d variety involve, for example, the statistical analysis of questionnaire data, as well as more mathematical kinds of analysis. Cell b, is the qualitative analysis of quantitative data. It’s the search for, and the presentation of, meaning in the results of quantitative data processing. It’s what quantitative analysts do after they get through doing the work in cell d. Without the work in cell b, cell d studies are puerile. This leaves cell c, the quantitative analysis of qualitative data. This involves turning the data from words or images into numbers. The following test can help me in identifying the problems in Midland City High School, thus helps provide solution.             Credit:ivythesis.typepad.com

Discrimination practices

My possible hypotheses are this: the discrimination practices in Midland High School regarding the Franconi’s teen-agers facilitate and e...

Research methods

BRIEF RESEARCH BACKGROUNDS             Two research papers are taken in this paper and evaluated critically using appropriate academic frameworks. Both the papers analysed were research done in the field of education. The first research paper is entitled “The Self-Worth, Physical and Social Activities of Graduate Students: A Qualitative Study”, done by  and published in the College Student Journal in 2006. As the title implies, the study is of a qualitative nature, the purpose of which was to explore graduate students’ perspectives of how graduate school affected their participation in physical and social activities and their self worth. The results of the research indicated that the occupation of being a graduate student affects one’s social and physical activities in a typically negative fashion, and overall sense of self-worth in both a negative and positive way.             The second research paper has a title “Comparing Web-Based and Classroom-Based Learning: A Quantitative Study”, conducted by  in 2001 for the Journal of Research on Technology Education. This quantitative study compares the achievement of students enrolled in two sections of a course on teaching English to speakers of other languages (ESOL), one taught in a classroom setting and the other offered online to make a small contribution to the research-based dialogue regarding student achievement in both sections. The findings of the study suggest that students in the Web-based section of the course learned slightly but not significantly more than students in the classroom-based section of the course. MODE OF ENQUIRY EMPLOYED             The research papers were chosen mainly for the difference in the mode of enquiry that they used. For purposes of this paper, the qualitative study conducted by  and  will be pertained to as ‘QL study’ in the remainder of the paper, while the quantitative study performed by  and  will be identified as ‘QN study’. First, there is a need to define the modes of enquiry as used in the two studies.  (2002) has defined qualitative study as the study of processes and behaviours in their natural settings, through which the researcher tries to make sense of phenomena and the meanings that people attribute to them. In agreement with that, the QL study attempted to interpret and understand the phenomena happening to graduate students in their social, institutional, political, economic, technological, institutional and organizational contexts. The study’s participants’ physical and social activity and self-worth were reportedly all impacted by being a graduate student; at times, some areas of their lives (i.e., school) received magnified attention at the cost of other areas. The qualitative researcher in the study employed focus groups in an attempt to interpret and understand self-worth, physical and social activities of the graduate students, and, in so doing, offers multiple perspectives that incrementally add to the understanding of its operation and its implicit meanings (2000). Another distinctive feature of the QL study is the researcher’s role as the primary research instrument, since the research is invariably conducted through the researcher’s direct engagement in intense, prolonged and direct exposure to the group amidst situations that form the everyday activities and processes of people, organizations and institutions. This engagement serves the researcher’s objective to capture the perceptions and understandings of the actors ‘from the inside’ so as to better understand how they make sense of and manage their daily activities (1994). Also, although researchers have a topic and an agenda which fuel their research progress, they are usually committed to exploring new and often surprising avenues that emerge as informants reveal their understandings and interests. Research procedures may be unstructured, adaptable and sometimes spontaneous. At times the research process may even be described as rather ‘messy’ as researchers attempt to unpack the complexities of the social world. This is where qualitative studies come in. These type of studies are normally characterised as flexible, that allows researchers to discover new avenues in their work. Finally, in comparison with the quantitative researcher’s analytical reliance on statistics, the QL study’s analysis is based on a careful and deep understanding and use of language, concept and argument. Despite its strengths, qualitative inquiry is not without its limitations. One of the most common criticisms is that it is too subjective. Those holding to a quantitative research orientation sometimes accuse qualitative studies of being too impressionistic and subjective. However, subjectivity is the aim of qualitative research, as we noted with regard to ‘participant viewpoints’ in the previous section. By paying attention to criteria of reliability and validity (or authenticity and trustworthiness), the study will go some way to overcoming this charge.  (2002) describes quantitative data as ‘data which can be sorted, classified, measured in a strictly “objective” way – they are capable of being accurately described by a set of rules or formulae or strict procedures which then make their definition (if not always their interpretation) unambiguous and independent of individual judgments’. This choice of enquiry by the QN study was justified in their objective to compare the achievement of students in the online and the offline sections of the course, which was only possible through direct measurement (test scores) characteristic of quantitative studies. In sum, the quantitative research in education emphasizes the discovery of existing facts by employing neutral scientific language. Philosophically, this view is based on a ‘subject-object relationship (1983) in which human reality is able to be isolated and exists independently from the researcher’s subjectivity. The results of the data analysis, therefore, are presented in a numerical and objective way. One of the research goals of the QN study is a discovery of universal value. Universal value means that the research value is universally applicable regardless of time, place, culture and other factors (2002). This concept is largely linked to the generalizability of research. In quantitative research, in order to make generalizability, objectivity of the research is particularly emphasized by using neutral scientific language. The strength of the quantitative research approach, especially as used in education, is that the research results are derived by discovering exact facts and, therefore, the same research methods and the results are generalized. In other words, it can be applied to a large number of other situations because it is objective and value free (1990). That is to say, a researcher’s subjectivity is separate from the research and the research is able to show exact facts objectively. In (1983) words, the value is ‘free’ from researcher’s perspective.  (1984) points out some strong points of the quantitative research approach in education, which was also evident in the QN study. They are: first, the theory is not context-bound but is universal. It consists of axiomatic principles. Second, theory is considered to be value-free. Readers, thus, may judge or understand the facts without knowing the researcher’s value judgment. Third, the use of mathematical statistical analysis can reduce ambiguities and contradictions which would exist in the research. Thus, it is possible to be generalised. In the study, the finding that that students in the Web-based section of the course learned slightly but not significantly more than students in the classroom-based section of the course can be made to apply to all Web-based courses, thus paving way for ongoing research to continuously test the effectiveness of evolving Web-based course delivery technologies. One weakness of the quantitative research approach in education is that the researcher’s viewpoint is not considered in the explanation of the research. Even though there are psychological issues which affect the research results, the quantitative research approach does not pursue the connection of the human mind, as also implied in the QN study. In addition, the quantitative research approach pays no attention to the individual differences of the subjects.  (1978) states that quantitative analysis is less comfortable for linguists when it is used to generalise linguistic differences. According to  (1978), many linguists worry a great deal about various difficulties posed by quantification, but as for the focus of the course in the QN study on meeting the needs of the linguistically and culturally diverse student population found in the nation’s elementary schools, this did not appear to be a problem because the subjects were not grouped according to their language or culture. SAMPLING TECHNIQUE UTILISED             A maximum variation sample, which provides researchers with perspectives and experiences of study participants who have varying characteristics (2002), was recruited for the QL study. It was hypothesized that different academic disciplines may offer differing experiences for their graduate students. Therefore, master and doctoral level students from a wide-variety of academic disciplines were recruited for this study. Inductive content analysis was also used to analyze the data. Each member of the research team independently coded emerging themes, and, once individual analysis of the data was complete, the researchers compared their findings. To enhance the trustworthiness of the study findings, strategies such as member checking, independent analysis and peer debriefing were utilized, as recommended by  (1989).             Qualitative approaches demand different sampling techniques from the randomly selected and probabilistic sampling which quantitative researchers generally use. They are less rigid and do not start with the establishment of a strict sampling frame, as in quantitative studies. This is because qualitative sampling develops during the research process as the researcher discovers new avenues and clues to follow up. Likewise, this kind of sampling are far less complicated to set up, are considerably less expensive, and can prove perfectly adequate where researchers do not intend to generalize their findings beyond the sample in question, or where they are simply piloting a questionnaire as a prelude to the main study.  On the down side, this kind of sampling is disadvantaged in that it fails to become representative of the whole population. The subjects in the QN study were students enrolled in TSL 4141 during the fall 1999 semester. The students were not randomly assigned to the online and classroom-based sections of the course. However, when students enrolled in one of the two sections of the course, they had no way of knowing whether they were registering for an online or offline section of the course. The decision to teach one of the sections online was made by the instructor after the official course registration period ended. Whilst it may satisfy the researcher’s needs to take the whole population as subjects of the study, it may not be so practical for a quantitative study with a large population to not stick to sampling, as it will prove time-consuming and costly. DATA COLLECTION TECHNIQUE USED             In the QL study, the focus group interview was used as a data collection technique. The focus group interview method of inquiry has become immensely popular and influential in contemporary culture. The focus group interview has been chosen as the data collection technique for the QL study as it can be used in addressing issues associated with nearly any theoretical or applied problem. Whatever the perspective or problem, focus group interviews are most useful when employed with the assumption that knowledge is socially constructed and where the reality of interest is the result of social interaction, which is the case in the QL study, it being focused on exploration of the graduate students’ perspectives of how their occupation of being a graduate student affects their participation in physical activity and social opportunities and their overall sense of self worth. The QL study operates from the perspective that research is a series of negotiated acts, dependent upon language that results in shared knowledge (2000). Generative group interaction is the defining feature of the focus group (1993). During the seven semi-structured focus group interviews that were conducted with full-time graduate students, the moderator is able to observe how people make private opinions public and how that process shapes the formation of their stated opinion. Experts in the focus group interview method acknowledge that participants are informing one another (1994; 1993). Rather than providing short responses to structured questions, focus group participants engage in thoughtful discussion and may actually influence one another. Motivation for interacting can usually be assumed when participation is voluntary; people generally give of their time—at least with serious research subjects—when they have more personal investment in the subject. The motivation of participants required for effective focus groups calls for caution in the interpretation and extension of study findings. However, there are weaknesses to their choice of data collection technique. The researchers of the QL study admitted that since the study used only one data collection method, it may invite bias and inaccuracy. Many strategies were used to try and combat this limitation and ensure trustworthiness of the data, including member checking, peer-debriefing, and multiple analysts and coders. However, these strategies would be further enhanced through the use of an additional method of data collection, which the authors of the QL study recommend for future research. On the other hand, the QN study employed the direct measurement technique using the test scores administered to the subjects of the study, which included the core concepts and ideas covered in the course. A pretest was administered to the online and offline groups at the beginning of the semester. The same test was administered as the posttest at the end of the semester. The test included the core concepts and ideas covered in the course. The pre- and posttests were independently scored by the course instructor and a colleague of the instructor. The attraction of this method of data collection is that such a ‘homegrown’ test will be tailored to the local and institutional context very tightly, i.e. that the purposes, objectives and content of the test will be deliberately fitted to the specific needs of the researcher in a specific, given context. In an educational research, they offer teachers a valuable opportunity for quick, relevant and focused feedback on student performance. In discussing ‘fitness for purpose’, Gronlund & Linn (1990) set out a range of criteria against which a commercially produced test can be evaluated for its suitability for specific research purposes. The scope of tests and testing is far-reaching; it is as if no areas of educational activity are untouched by them (2000). Achievement tests, like the one employed in the QN study, are largely summative in nature and measure achieved performance in a given content area, in the study’s case, the development of knowledge, skills, and dispositions that will enable the students to select and apply the most effective language communication and teaching strategies for all aspects of classroom instruction. Further, an achievement test is more specific and often tied to a specific content area, it will be useful as a predictor of future performance in that content area but will be largely unable to predict future performance out of that content area. Particularly, this summative testing given at the end of the programm is designed to measure achievement, outcomes, or ‘mastery’. However,  (1995) asserted that not only might it be time-consuming to devise, pilot, refine and then administer the test but, because much of it will probably be non-parametric, there will be a more limited range of statistics which may be applied to the data than in the case of parametric tests. CONCLUSION What can be observed in recent developments in educational research is the importation of ideas and methods from spheres outside education, furthering the notion that interdisciplinary inquiry is both a developing trend and, indeed, the way forward at the cutting edge of research. With these recent developments come the improvements in how the methods of enquiry are being carried out by contemporary educational researchers. It is important, then, for the researcher to be clear on the purposes of the needs analysis being undertaken, for this will determine the focus, methodology and outcome of the assessment. Consequent to this, it is necessary for the needs analysis to be clear on its remit, focus, sampling, methodology, data collection, and prescription for intervention. Particularly for the last criterion, the intention is to ensure that interventions are appropriately matched to perceived problems or needs, indeed that competing and alternative proposed interventions are evaluated. The data required for needs analysis can be derived from several sources, for example, in quantitative data from: structured surveys; ‘key person’ (informants) surveys; structured interviews; data from official public sources and documents (e.g. census returns, test and examination data, and other surveys); simulations and prediction analyses; test, assessment and examination data; application, attendance, retention, withdrawal and success rates; and in qualitative data from: semi-structured interviews with individuals and groups; focus groups; case studies; critical incidents and events; public meetings; nominal group technique and Delphi techniques; Ishikawa cause-and-effect diagrams.             Evaluation of the strengths and weaknesses of the variety of research methods available for use not only by educational  researchers but for the whole lot as well, is needed to identify the appropriate methods related to specific research objectives. As evidenced in the analysis of the two research papers, their respective authors utilised the research methodologies which they deemed most fit for the achievement of their research objectives. Doing research has changed dramatically over the past few decades. With few exceptions, until the 1980s, the typical research training in universities focused on statistics, measurement, and experimental methods, with little or no attention to other approaches to research. The decade of the 1990s raised new challenges to research practice, with scholarly debates around the power differentials in researcher—participant relationships, ethical issues in the conduct of research, and in ways in which researchers represent participants in written accounts, particularly when participants are women and people of colour. Much of this debate was of a philosophical nature based on post-modern challenges to traditional modernist notions of research assumptions and practice. As the 21st century is here, these theoretical and methodological debates continue as scholars critique and rethink what has been and explore what might be in research. Researchers today are keenly aware of the multiple methodologies available for contributing new knowledge to the disciplines and the challenges entailed in the use of each of those approaches. As (1986) reminded us, ‘There are many ways to do science’ (105).           Credit:ivythesis.typepad.com

Research methods

BRIEF RESEARCH BACKGROUNDS Two research papers are taken in this paper and evaluated critically using appropriate academi...

Research Approaches

Research Approaches Introduction Methodologies are outlooks on research; they set out an image for what research is and how it should be carried out (1984). Basically, axioms and methods are connected to each other. Methods are tools or techniques of gathering of data, techniques of analysis, and techniques of writing. Since it is a tool, then a scrupulous method can often be used by many different methodologies (both qualitative and quantitative). Therefore, methodologies are at a more abstract (or general) level than are methods. Apparently,  defined ‘methodology’ as a strategy or plan for achieving some goal. In contrast to this, methods are the tactics that can be used to service the goals of the methodology. In essence, methodologies provide the blueprints that prescribe how the tools should be used. Those prescriptions can be traced to the axioms — beliefs about how research should be conducted.             According to  (2004), all research will possibly involve categorical or numerical data or data that can be use for analysis to help the researcher answer the research questions.   (2004;) defined quantitative as a type of empirical knowledge. On the other hand, qualitative data are described in expressions of quality. Qualitative is the converse of quantitative, which more precisely describes data in terms of quantity (that is, using ‘formal’ numerical measurement).  Basically, the major qualitative methodologies are: ethnography, ethnomethodology, reception studies, ecological psychology, symbolic interactionism, cultural studies, and textual analysis (1992). There may be other methodologies at the fringes of both quantitative and qualitative approach, and there might be qualitative scholars developing other methodologies. Apparently, this paper aims to discuss the issues concerning to both quantitative and qualitative research methods.   Discussions Both Qualitative and Quantitative Researches are very important to consider in doing researches and studies. When writing about research methods it is a good idea evaluate the approaches and methods that you are using.   Quantitative Research As stated by  (2004), quantitative research is the systematic scientific investigation of quantitative properties and phenomena and their relationships. Quantitative research is widely used in both the natural and social sciences, including physics, biology, psychology, sociology, geology, education, and journalism (1984). The objective of quantitative research is to develop and employ mathematical models, theories and hypotheses pertaining to natural phenomena. The process of measurement is central to quantitative research because it provides the fundamental connection between empirical observation and mathematical expression of quantitative relationships.             Virtually all research involve some numerical data or contain data that would usefully be quantified to help you answer your research question(s) and to meet your objectives.  Quantitative data in quantitative research refers to all such data and can be a product of all research strategies.  It can range from simple counts such as the frequency of occurrences to more complex data such as test scores or prices.  To be useful these data need to be analyzed and interpreted.  Quantitative analysis techniques assist this process.  The range from creating simple tables or diagrams that show the frequency of occurrence through establishing statistical relationship between variables to complex statistical modeling.              Until the advent of powerful personal computers, data were analyzed either by hand of by using mainframe computers.  The former of these was extremely time consuming and prone to error, the latter expensive.  Fortunately, the by-hand or calculator ‘number-crunching’ and ‘charting’ elements of quantitative analysis have been incorporated into relative inexpensive personal-computer-based analysis software.  These range from spreadsheets such as the Excel and Lotus to more advanced data management and statistical software packages such as Minitab, SAS, SPSS for Windows and Statview. Actually, Quantitative research is generally approached using scientific methods which include: ·         The generation of models, theories and hypotheses ·         The development of instruments and methods for measurement ·         Experimental control and manipulation of variables ·         Collection of empirical data ·         Modelling and analysis of data ·         Evaluation of results Quantitative research is often an iterative process whereby evidence is evaluated, theories and hypotheses are refined, technical advances are made, and so on. Virtually all research in physics is quantitative whereas research in other scientific disciplines, such as taxonomy and anatomy, may involve a combination of quantitative and other analytic approaches and methods.     Statistics in Quantitative Research               Statistics is the most widely used branch of mathematics in quantitative research outside of the physical sciences, and also finds applications within the physical sciences, such as in statistical mechanics. Statistical methods are used extensively within fields such as economics, social sciences and biology. Quantitative research using statistical methods typically begins with the collection of data based on a theory or hypothesis, followed by the application of descriptive or inferential statistical methods. Causal relationships are studied by manipulating factors thought to influence the phenomena of interest while controlling other variables relevant to the experimental outcomes ( 1984). In the field of health, for example, researchers might measure and study the relationship between dietary intake and measurable physiological effects such as weight loss, controlling for other key variables such as exercise. Quantitatively based opinion surveys are widely used in the media, with statistics such as the proportion of respondents in favor of a position commonly reported (1992). In opinion surveys, respondents are asked a set of structured questions and their responses are tabulated (1992). In the field of climate science, researchers compile and compare statistics such as temperature or atmospheric concentrations of carbon dioxide (1992). On the other hand, empirical relationships and associations are also frequently studied by using some form of General linear model, non-linear model, or by using factor analysis. A fundamental principle in quantitative research is that correlation does not imply causation. This principle follows from the fact that it is always possible a spurious relationship exists for variables between which covariance is found in some degree. Associations may be examined between any combination of continuous and categorical variables using methods of statistics.   Qualitative Research Basically,  (2000) believes that qualitative research uses explanatory methods in describing the variables wherein the data, situations, or other facts collected will be explained or correlated with other data. According to them qualitative research methods are useful when conducting a study wherein the data are immeasurable, such as feelings, beliefs, thoughts, and others. Moreover,  (1984) stated that qualitative methods is important to management analysis, organisation studies and even to business development since it assist the researchers who desire to understand complex social phenomena. They are appropriate when seeking knowledge about the fundamental characteristics of a phenomenon being studied before theorising about it. This knowledge often surfaces through close contact with subjects of a study, allowing the researcher to understand their points of view about and experiences with the phenomenon. Researchers even disagree on the definition of “qualitative.” For example, some researchers use terms such as naturalistic and descriptive, as well as field, product, and case study. Perhaps the best way to clear up some of the confusion about qualitative research is to examine some its most accepted methodologies and characteristics. On the other hand,  (1992) proposes that there are but three general types of data-gathering techniques in qualitative studies: experiencing, enquiring, and examining. These three techniques are used, argues, in such diverse qualitative approaches as case studies, non-participant observed studies, interviews, participant observation, phenomenology, ethnomethodology, enography, and ethnology. As (1992) notes, most qualitative research is based on a case study that uses one or several of these qualitative techniques, enabling researchers to immerse themselves within a culture or a context and producing questions to pursue for further research and understanding of phenomena. As an extension of the qualitative technique of interviewing,  (1991) propose that focus groups offer researchers a rich source in which to gather genuine information about participants’ perceptions, experiences, and attitudes which provide a basis from which to build theory. Another variation of interviewing techniques proposed by  (1992) is the Delphi technique, which can be valuable in gathering data on a subject from a panel of experts. For researchers who want to learn how to conduct qualitative research, numerous sources are available. (1993) present essays on interviews, focus groups, narrative analysis, critical incidents, and ethnographic analysis;  (1987) offers good procedures for participant observations;  (1988) describes conversation, narrative, and content analysis;  (1988) provides guidelines for focus groups; and  (1988) discusses interviews.     Importance of Qualitative Research             There are two factors which stand to achieve from the use of qualitative research inquisition. First, researchers gain not only because of increased ease of use to pre-existing viewpoint and the contextually responsive nature of methodologies such as life history, but also for the reason that qualitative research methodology helps researchers address the “singularity of values” (1993) so ubiquitous in past research efforts and understand the nature of “intercontextual work” (1992). According to (1993) second factor, the researched, benefit from qualitative research inquiry because the inquiry provides for more authentic texts and opportunities for personal empowerment and transformation.             On the other hand,  (1991) argues that teacher understanding is a ‘multiplicity of personal, social, cultural and political influences’. Thus, research methods have shifted to reflect new ideas. Inquiry into teaching focuses more on self-images and voices of teachers, rather than the single values of the researcher. “Constructionist” and “interactionist” inquiries, argues , are being used to reflect the sophisticated contexts within which teachers operate.  (1991) believes that it is a “process of meaning-making, grounded in the contexts of personal and social history” (). Apparently, (1987) asserts that qualitative researchers not only rebuff the conception of common context-free oversimplification but that delicate and interpersonal histories are mixed up in teaching and qualitative research is a scrupulous approach to data that is milieu sensitive. Because of these more sensitive approaches to research,  (1993) believes that such issues as gender, race, political and secular interests which may be part of an everyday language can be explored through qualitative methods. According to Bax the researcher’s values are only pan of the research and need to be reported as such. The voice of the researched offers a second reality. A third reality is offered by the social, cultural, political and economic contexts surrounding the life of the researched. The issue of reporting reality and knowledge in dominant research efforts was addressed by  (1993) and was called an issue of “singularity of values”. According to, dominant research, rooted in “mainstream questions and concerns and ethically normative findings, has communicated a singular ontology (philosophy of reality) and epistemology (philosophy of knowing and relating to the intended known, the other” () and has lead to the singularity of values, history and accounts in research efforts. Thus, according to him, qualitative inquiry with its greater emphasis on one to one correspondence and its opposition to a priori thinking leads to a greater diversity and representation of the individual and collective values. No longer are researchers the ultimate authority in qualitative research inquiry, ownership is a negotiation between both researchers and researched. Furthermore, Bax claims that power shifts among those involved in the research, roles become flexible, the boundaries of old blurred and changed which ultimately benefit both researcher and researched.             Because qualitative research inquiry addresses issues of authority, interpretation, and reinterpretation in the construction of accounts, authentic texts which appropriately represent the researched are possible. The voice of the researched is valued and given a central place in qualitative research inquiry. A second benefit is that, contructivist, critical, participatory methodologies such as qualitative research inquiry address issues of adequacy and authenticity of text and potentially empower, and transform the researched (1993).   Conclusions             With respect to legitimacy and sufficiency and changing roles, a number of researchers ( 1993; 1992) raise additional related issues of ethics, rigor, fidelity, plausibility, and consistency, concealment of research intent and imbalanced researcher /researched perspectives. According to  (1993), authentic and adequate accounts demand that researchers: choose newer experimental forms of research, forms which consider problems of interpretation and authority; produce knowledge that is transformative; examine the ethics and morality of their work; write texts that are open-ended and subject to multiple interpretations.             In conclusion, qualitative and quantitative research methods benefit both the researched and researcher communities in diverse ways, thus this kind of research method is definitely an important factor in organisation, business and management development. The researched become agents of knowledge, co-creators scrutinizing the authenticity of texts, while researchers have a mode of textual and inter-contextual analysis and are privy to processes which have ethical safeguards. Researchers therefore have the opportunity to develop a wider understanding of schooling and individual choices through collaborative research.             From the previous discussion, one final distinction should be made between the broad nature of analysing quantitative data and the analysis of qualitative data.  By and large, analysing within the positivistic tradition, attempts to be objective, and involves the researcher standing back from the data during the analysis.  On the other hand, in the interpretative tradition, the respondents has a potentially much greater influence upon the analytic process, the researcher and the respondent engage in a much more interactive process, and during the data  collection the respondent may in a variety of ways influence the ideas of the researcher towards data analysis.  If this has happened in a research, then it is very important to reflect upon this process in as much detail as possible.  These processes are often very complex, and it is not always easy to illuminate them, but again an attempt at this can help the reader of research paper to make sense of analytic procedures.             Credit:ivythesis.typepad.com

Research Approaches

Research Approaches Introduction Methodologies are outlooks on research; they set out an image for what research is and how it should be...

ISSUES INVOLVED WHEN USING QUANTITATIVE AND QUALITATIVE METHODOLIGIES IN RESEARCH

ISSUES INVOLVED WHEN USING QUANTITATIVE AND QUALITATIVE METHODOLIGIES IN RESEARCH   Introduction In doing a research study it is important that the researcher would have the ability to efficiently determine the best methodologies to be used in order to ensure that the objective and purpose of the research will be met.  Through the appropriate methodologies, researches made will be able to have a direction to follow in order to gather the pertinent information and to be able to establish a valid conclusion that would answer the problems posited in the research.  In addition, good methodologies will also enable the researcher to provide plausible recommendation to the problems stated. Traditionally, research methodologies are differentiated between quantitative and qualitative approaches. The two types of research methodologies have different philosophical roots (Maykut & Morehouse, 1994). Primarily, the main goal of this paper is to determine the issue involved when using quantitative and qualitative methodologies in research.  The first part of the discussion will provide the general discussion regarding quantitative and qualitative research methods and the second paper will be the discussion of different approaches used in a specific situation. In this case, the paper will discuss       Differences of Quantitative and Qualitative Research Various authors has been able to different the contexts of both qualitative and quantitative methodologies. According to Newman and Benz (1998), in line with virtual concept, all qualitative researchers, regardless of their theoretical differences, reflect some sort of individual phenomenological perspective. On one hand, most quantitative research approaches, regardless of their theoretical differences, tend to emphasize that there is a common reality on which people can agree (Newman & Benz, 1998:2). Such variations in basic philosophical assumptions about the nature of experience lead qualitative and quantitative researchers to use different methods in their search for knowledge. The assumption, that there is a common reality amongst people, directs quantitative researchers to use objective methods to search for knowledge (Newman and Benz, 1998). On the other hand, qualitative researchers, who believe that there is no “objective” reality, reject objective methods and claim that subjective methods are the best way to understand reality (Newman and Benz, 1998). Quantitative researchers are generally rooted in positivist paradigms and aim to devise “universal theory” to explain social phenomena (Cohen et al., 2000: 23). Quantitative researchers try to devise general theories of human behaviour and to validate them through the use of increasingly complex research methodologies which, some believe, push them further and further from the experience and understanding of the everyday world and into a world of abstraction (Cohen et al., 2000: 23). Therefore, generalisation is part of the goal of quantitative research, which consequently requires medium/large-scale research. Experiments and surveys the common strategies of inquiry. Furthermore, data are collected by using predetermined instruments, closed questions, and result in numeric data. The use of statistical tests is a common way to analyse the data (Creswell, 2003). In contrast, qualitative researchers emphasise individuals’ interpretation of the world. The aim of investigation is not to develop a general theory but to understand how this glossing of reality goes on at one time and in one place and compare it with what goes on in different times and places. Thus theory becomes sets of meanings which yield insight and understanding of people’s behaviour. (Cohen et al., 2000: 23). Because of the assumption that reality is subjective and meanings are individual in nature, qualitative researchers usually conduct small-scale research and employ open questions to allow participants to describe or express their individual meanings (Cohen et al., 2000; Creswell, 2003). The dichotomy of quantitative and qualitative research continues with debates which argue which method is more appropriate: the deductive methods, which are used by quantitative researchers; or the inductive methods, which are chosen by qualitative researchers (Newman and Benz, 1998). However, most contend that both quantitative and qualitative approaches have both strengths and weaknesses. The investigation of society or a social system in quantitative research which is conducted in a large-scale study, enables researchers to make generalisations and provide descriptions of macro social structures (Mays & Pope. 2000) or to discover the prevalence of problem (Trochim, 2002). Nevertheless, it can be argued that the breadth of descriptions, which results from quantitative research, at the same time, sacrifices the detailed descriptions of the individual’s meaning of his/her experience (Mays & Pope, 2002). In addition, the reduction of social phenomena into variables in quantitative research is too simplistic to examine the complexity of the social issues being addressed and would lead to a lack of accuracy in investigating the complexity of experience (Niglas, 2000). On the other hand, qualitative research, which is characterised by “subjectivity”, enables researchers to benefit from the discovery of individual meaning or the perspective of the people that they study (Creswell, 2003). Qualitative research also provides detailed descriptions in context, which allow researchers to gain a better understanding of behaviour. Thus an important contribution of descriptive details for the ethnographer is to the mapping out of a context for the understanding of subjects’ interpretations of what is going on and for the researcher to produce analyses and explanations which do justice to the milieu in which his or her observations and interviews are conducted. (Robson, 2002) Furthermore, the tendency to use an open and unstructured strategy in qualitative research gives opportunities for participants to elicit issues which might be useful in understanding social phenomena, but have not been thought of by the researcher beforehand (Holliday, 2002). However, the foci on individuals’ meaning and experience in qualitative research, which aim for a deeper understanding of the complexity of social phenomena, can also have a consequence on the sacrifice of the “breadth of description” and generalisability of findings (Creswell, 2003). Furthermore, qualitative research may also suffer from a lack of precision in terms of “the extent” to which a category might be present (Trochim, 2002). Hence, it can be argued that that one type of research methodology should not be seen as superior to the other because both quantitative and qualitative approaches have strengths and weaknesses. They provide a different type of contribution in the effort of search for knowledge.   Methodologies Used in Specific Clinical Practice             As mentioned different methodologies are used in various studies, specifically those used in each clinical practice or area.  One clinical practice that has been given attention by various scholars, especially the neuroscientists is regarding Parkinson’s disease. Accordingly, Parkinson’s disease is known as a degenerative and chronic disease which leads to balance disorders, slowness, difficulty in walking and tremors. The Parkinson’s disease is the result of the loss of dopamine-producing nerve cells in the brain. Neuroscientists are trying to find ways on helping those individuals with the disease to improve their motor function and one of these is their studies about different treatment used for individuals with Parkinson’s disease.             Clinical studies may include the use of different approaches of qualitative and quantitative research studies. Quantitative studies include the single-subject design, correlational studies and other statistical approach, surveys, quasi experimental method, experimental method while qualitative approaches include ethnography, grounded theory and case study.             For instance, in a study conducted by Tamir, Dickstein and Huberman (2007), entitled “Integration of motor imagery and physical practice in group treatment applied to subjects with Parkinson’s disease.” In this study, the main goal is to know whether the application of motor imagery practice in treating Parkinson’s disease can be considered as a novel treatment method for improving motor function of the patient. In this regard, the study compare group treatment through the use of a combination motor imagery and physical practice using only physical practice in the subjects with Parkinson’s Disease. It can be said that the researchers have been able to use both qualitative (case study) and quantitative (comparison, experimental) approaches. Using this method, the researchers studied the cases of the chosen respondents or patients and conduct an experiment and observation method to meet the objective of the paper. They use experimental groups and treated them with both real practice and imagery while the control group only received physical exercises.  Using such research approach, the combined treatment group showed significantly faster movement performance than the control group. In addition, the experimental subjects also show higher gains in terms of the mental and motor subsets of the Unified Parkinson’s Disease Rating Scale (UPDRS) and the cognitive tests. Through the effective use of this research method, the study found that the integration of the real practice and motor imagery may be effective in terms of treating Parkinson’s disease, specifically for reducing the bradykinesia. The application of such treatment regime permits for the extension of practice time with low cost and negligible risk (Tamir, Dickstein & Huberman, 2007)             In a prospective cohort study conducted by Logroscino and his colleague (2006), the researchers has been able to use quantitative research, to examine the relationship between Parkinson’s Disease and physical activity among 10, 714 men form the Harvard Alumni Health Study who were diagnosed as free of self-reported PD in 1988. The quantitative approach in this study has been able to used multivariate approach or analyses to know the relative risks for PD associated with physical activity and find that physical activity does not show any significant associations in terms of lowering the risk of Parkinson’s disease. However, it is also noted that these study have only considered small number of individuals with Parkinson’s disease which becomes the number one limitation of the study (Logroscino et al, 2006).             In the study conducted by Caglar and his colleague (2005), entitled “Effects of home exercises on motor performance in patients with Parkinson’s disease”, the researchers has been able to use the prospective blinded study which is an experimental study under quantitative approach. In order to investigate the effect of home exercises in line with the motor function of individuals with Parkinson’s disease, the researcher opted to use this quantitative method with allocation of patients in two experimental groups and control groups by alternative weeks. Thirty respondents were recruited from a movement disorders outpatient clinic of Cerrahpasa School of Medicine and these individuals were diagnosed with Parkinson’s disease. The researcher classified each of the patients as Hoehn and Yahr Grades I, II and III.             In this study, the individuals with PD who has been able to fulfil the inclusion criteria were recruited by the researchers to be part of the study. Each of these patients was assessed at the end of the first month and second moth, after the baseline assessment. Individuals were classified intro two groups with 30 members. The group in the first and third week were placed in the exercise group and second and fourth week members were in the control group. In this study, those patients in the exercise group were provided a schedule of exercises to be performed at home and the second group did not receive such treatment.  As the first group followed the home exercise program, the patients or members of this group showed development in walking 10-20 m. Herein, time elapsed to complete such walking around a chair as well as the length of the first pace, and improvement in the motor performance of both  hands. Through the use of quantitative (experimental) approach, the researchers concluded that a home-based rehabilitation programme for Parkinson’s disease patients has been able to help in improving the motor performance of the individuals compared to patients who did not provided with the exercise programme (Caglar et al, 2005).             Other studies were conducted, this time, in terms of comparing the effects of a physiotherapist supervised exercise program and self-supervised home exercise program on the motor symptoms of PD (Lun et al, 2005). In this study, the researchers have been able to use qualitative and quantitative approach through the prospective single blinded clinical trial to compare the two exercise programs in motor symptoms in PD patients. In this study, the researchers include nineteen patients (13 men and 6 women with a mean age of 65+/-8 years) with Hoehn and Yahr Stages 2 to 3. These patients were grouped into home grouped and physiotherapy (PT group). The patients were self-selected into an 8-week exercise treatment. The study also considered the of the outcome measurement which is Unified Parkinson’s Disease Rating Scale Motor subsection score (UPDRSm). On the other hand, the study also uses UPDRS Total score, Activities-specific Balance Confidence Scale, Timed Up and Go Test and Berg Balance Scale, for secondary result measurements. All the outcome was evaluated at baseline and at 8 and 16 weeks after the study began. The researchers of this study were blinded to the respondent’s treatment group. The quantitative method used in the study was the Bonferroni-corrected paired Student’s t test. Such t-test was utilised to assess and examine the transformation in the UPDRSm from baseline to 8 weeks. In this study, the researchers also considered 95% confidence intervals, for the transformation in terms of the secondary result measurements after the research started 8 weeks.             In this study, the researchers have found that there was an equal and statistically relative decrease in the UPDRSm from the research baseline to 8 weeks in both Homed groups and PT groups and they also found that in terms of the transformation of the secondary outcome measures, there was no difference in the 95% Confidence interval. Through the use of both qualitative (case study) and quantitative (t-test and blinded clinical trial), the researcher have concluded that self-supervised exercise approach have similar effectiveness like physiotherapist-supervised exercise approach in enhancing and developing motor symptoms in Parkinson’s Disease patients. Such finding is noted to be essential in the counselling of PD patients in terms of adjunctive treatment of motor functions of Parkinson’s disease with exercise (Lun et al, 2005).             Analysis shows that each of the given studies has been able to use different qualitative and quantitative methodologies to meet the objectives and purpose of the research. Analysis shows that in a study of the exercise treatment in Parkinson’s disease, most of the neuroscientists used prospective clinical study, prospective single blinded clinical trial, correlational study, experimental study, case study and t-test study. Each of the researchers attempted to use specific study method to ensure that they will be able to provide pertinent information and derived pertinent conclusion and recommendation.   Conclusion All in all, it can be said that if neuroscientists and other scholars or individual decides to conduct a neuroscience research, one of the important thing to consider is to determine the most suitable methodologies to be used. This includes the identification of the most appropriate type of research approach from qualitative to quantitative.  This is vital in conducting a research since this will be the one to ensure that the research is really having a pertinent data and effective approach that can be used to attain the main goal or purpose of the research.   In the case of clinical studies, the researcher must be able to apply each method in the most appropriate manner since clinical studies is important in providing new and evident ideas on how to treat specific disease like Parkinson’s Disease. Given that both qualitative and quantitative research approaches have their strengths and weaknesses and that they provide a different type of contribution, it can be argued that quantitative and qualitative research should not be an exclusive choice. Hammersley (1992), Silverman (1997), and Newman and Benz (1998) advise that the decision to adopt certain methodology by the researcher needs to be determined by considering the research purposes               Reference Caglar, AT, Gurses, HM, Mutluav, FK and Kiziltan, G. (2005). Effects of home exercises on motor performance in patients with Parkinson’s disease. Clinical Rehabilitation, 19(8): 870-877.   Creswell. J.W. (2003) Research design. Qualitative, quantitative and mixed methods approaches. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage   Cohen, et al., (2000). Legal Research in a Nutshell, (7th ed.), St. Paul, West.   Holliday, A. (2002). Doing and Writing Qualitative Research, Sage Publications Ltd, London, p. 1-7   Logroscino, G, Sesso, HD, Paffenbarger, RS Jr, and Lee, IM (2006). Physical activity and risk of Parkinson’s disease: a prospective cohort study. Journal of Neurolo Nurosurg Psychiatry, 77(12): 1318-1322.   Lun, V, Pullan, N, Labelle, N, Adams, C and Suchowersky, O (2005). Comparison of the effects of a self-supervised home exercise program with a physiotherapist-supervised exercise program on the motor symptoms of Parkinson’s disease. Movement Disorder, 20(8): 971-975.   Mays, N. and Pope, C. (2000) Qualitative research in health care: Assessing quality in qualitative research. BMJ, 320, pp.50-52   Newman, I. and Benz, C. R. (1998), Qualitative – Quantitative Research Methodology – Exploring the Interactive Continuum, Southern Illinois University Press, pp. 9, 65 – 67.   Niglas, K. (2000). Combining Quantitative and Qualitative Approaches. Paper presented at the European Conference on Educational Research, Edinburgh.   Robson, C. (2002) Real World Research (2nd Ed.), Oxford, Blackwell.            Tamir, R., Dickstein, R. and Huberman, M. (2007). Integration of motor imagery and physical practice in group treatment applied to subjects with Parkinson’s disease. Neurorehabil Neural Repair, 21(1):68-75.   Trochim, W.M. (2002) Research Methods Knowledge Base (2nd Ed.), Ohio, Atomic           Dog Publishing.       Credit:ivythesis.typepad.com

ISSUES INVOLVED WHEN USING QUANTITATIVE AND QUALITATIVE METHODOLIGIES IN RESEARCH

ISSUES INVOLVED WHEN USING QUANTITATIVE AND QUALITATIVE METHODOLIGIES IN RESEARCH Introduction In doing a research study it is im...

ISSUES INVOLVED WHEN USING QUANTITATIVE AND QUALITATIVE METHODOLIGIES IN RESEARCH

MODULE:             RESEARCH METHODS 1     MODULE COORDINATOR:                  TITLE: ISSUES INVOLVED WHEN USING QUANTITATIVE AND QUALITATIVE METHODOLIGIES IN RESEARCH     MATRICULATION NUMBER: 06001737                       INTRODUCTION This assignment deals with the issues involved when using quantitative and Qualitative methodologies in research. It is mainly divided into two major sections. The first part will consider the general discussion about Quantitative and Qualitative approaches. It will then go on to discuss the approaches used in a specific condition. According to Merriam-Webster dictionary, research is a ‘‘studious and critical inquiry And examination aimed at the discovery and interpretation of new knowledge’’ ( cited in Bork, 1993, p. 11). Research design in its specific level means the way the researcher perceives and tries to find a solution and gives an alternative interpretation of result (Punch 2005). Research approaches are generally categorized as Qualitative, Quantitative and Mixed research.   CONTRIBUTIONS AND DRAWBACKS Quantitative Research Design Quantitative or Reductionist research approach deals with quantities and relationship between attributes, and involves the collection and analysis of highly structured data in the positivist tradition. This research is appropriate in situations where there is pre-existing knowledge about a condition (Creswell, 2003). This approach tries to divide a particular theory into many constituent parts. It then tests each part separately. After analyzing the individual elements it can be used like a building block to construct theories and helps to know more about the phenomenon (Bork 1993)   Following chart shows the divisions of Quantitative Research Design           1. Experimental Method The basis of this method is the comparison between the groups. The aim of the research will be to show that the differences seen in the outcome variable between the groups are due to the independent variable (Punch 2005). Experimental method includes Pre-test/post-test design, Post test only design and Factorial design (Polgar and Thomas 1995)   In certain occasions it is ethically inappropriate to undergo research using experimental design (Polgar and Thomas 1995).     2. Quasi experimental Method It differs from experimental method in allocation of groups. In quasi experimental method there is no random allocation into groups. It is again divided into Time-series design and Multiple-group time-series design. Major drawbacks of both these designs are they have less internal validity (Polgar and Thomas 1995).   3. Surveys Commonly used survey approach is retrospective design which focuses mainly on past events. Another approach is prospective design in which the group needed for the study is identified initially (Hicks 2004). Even though it is easy to select participants according to clearly defined criteria, it is a real time consuming process to access an adequate number of suitable participants (Hicks 2004).   4. Correlational Studies The aim of this study in health sciences is to find out the interrelationships among clinically significant variables. Correlation numerically represents the strength of relationship that might be present between two or more variables (Polgar and Thomas 1995).   5. Single-subject design This design is also known as steady-state methodology since they compare the effects of manipulation done to some baseline in the same individual (Field and Hole 2003).This design is divided into AB design, ABAB design and Multiple baseline design (Polgar and Thomas 1995) These designs are helpful to prevent the perception of a wrong phenomenon as a result of the averaging together of the performance by individuals (Field and Hole 2003).   Qualitative Research Design Qualitative approach represents a broad view; helps understand human affairs and subjective qualities of human behavior (Holliday 2002). Qualitative approaches concentrates mostly on specific individuals, rather than on groups, or types of individuals. Here the individual as a whole in relation to their social setting is described. Hence qualitative research can be called as holistic (Hicks 2004). Webb (1988) also states that Qualitative research represents an interpretive science (cited in Barker 1999).   Qualitative research design provides insight into the social, emotional and experiential aspects of health and health care and thus has an important place in understanding health and health care. Observation of interaction between client and the health professional gives an insight into the meaning given by health professionals to their work (Holloway 2005). According to Cambell (1974) “All research ultimately has a qualitative grounding”(cited in Miles and Huberman 1994, p. 40). The strength of qualitative research is the understanding that comes from observing the inter-relationships (Bork, 1993). Quantitative and qualitative designs should be perceived as complementary rather than in terms of superior or inferior (Hicks 2004).     Principle approaches to qualitative Research are     DISCUSSION OF QUANTITATIVE AND QUALITATIVE METHODS USED IN SPECIFIC CONDITION (Exercise intervention to prevent falls in Elderly people)   Various studies have been conducted in this field. In a study by Carter et al (2002), a randomised control trial was undertaken to show that a community-based exercise program for 20 weeks reduced the risk factors for falls in the elderly. Dynamic balance, knee extension strength and static balance of the intervention group were found far better than that of control group. These are the important determinants to risk of falls in the elderly. A drawback to this study is Frail individuals (having osteoporosis) may not be able to attend community-based programs even though they might get more benefit than that of healthy individual. Motivation levels of the subjects could also influence outcome measures. Inclusion of a larger sample to evaluate the effect of this type of intervention on older individuals with osteoporosis could be an option for further research since these people are at greater risk of falls than the participants who attended in this study.   A randomised control trial conducted by Campbell et al (1997) showed that a home-based exercise programme for the elderly improved physical function and was effective in reducing falls and injuries in women above 80 years. A risk faced by researchers in this study is that the strength-retraining programme used here required increased activities such as walking which in turn increased the risk of falling in the already high-risk individuals. Another flaw in the research is that it was not possible to note the compliance and the quality of the exercises performed by the subjects since the exercises were home based   In yet another study conducted by Campbell and colleagues (2005), a randomised control trial of the prevention of falls in a particular risk group was done which included people aged 75 years and above with severe visual impairments. In this study two interventions were compared, Home safety programme and Exercise programme (Otago exercise programme). The home safety programme succeeded in the reduction of falls and also proved to be a cost effective regime than that of exercise programme. A major flaw in this study was that the participants were selected through Royal New Zealand Foundation of Blind and through Low vision Clinics. It would have been better if they screened the population through primary care for their ability to participate in exercise programme. This may help to deliver the intervention to those populations who are really in need.   An article by Salkeld et al (2000) used a mixed method, where a randomised control trial to examine the effectiveness of the external hip protectors for older women at risk of hip fractures was done. The qualitative aspect involved open ended quality of life interview, which helped to define the dimensions of quality of life affected by a hip fracture. The data helped to generate four ‘name labeled’ health states (full health, fear of falling, a good hip fracture and a bad hip fracture). It was seen that the most important threat seemed to be the loss of independence, dignity and possessions that resulted from moving into nursing homes. Most participants did not want to live on borrowed time at the expense of younger people. They preferred death to a state that meant losing their homes, independence and normal quality of life. A flaw in this study is that it is difficult to get the accurate proportion of women experiencing the bad hip fracture health state. Even though the study has got its own flaw, researcher says that its findings should be applicable to the frail old women who have sustained injury after a fall or those who had only a fall. The values for each health states in this study are considered reliable based on the intra class correlation coefficient.    Majority of Qualitative methodologist did not consider Measurement Validity and Reliability thoroughly and consistently (Denzin 1978, cited in Goodwin 1984). According to Bogdan and Biklen (1982) validity is given consideration rather than reliability in qualitative research.   Another effective example of an integrated qualitative and quantitative method was a study done by Borkan and his colleagues (1991) to determine the predictors of recovery after hip fracture in elderly patients as a result of fall. Standard questionnaires were used to collect information regarding age and type of break. In-depth interviews were collected from the patients to collect information about personal narratives focusing on the internal explanation of the fractures, sense of disability and view of the future after hip fracture following a fall. It was seen that those who perceived their fracture as more external or mechanical as opposed to an internal problem like related to a chronic disease were more likely to have a good recovery. Persons with a positive outlook, who perceived their disability in the context of independence and connection with the outside world showed better ambulation at 3 and 6 months than persons with a confined view of the fracture and the resulting disability.   CONCLUSION The qualitative and quantitative research methods have different approaches to research techniques but none of them are superior to other, rather complimentary techniques. The choice of method and how it can be used should be matched according to the study done. From the research studies mentioned above it is clear that randomised control trials were able to convince the reader that the various preventive interventions like home based exercises and safety programs were able to prevent falls in the elderly. The qualitative aspect of the paper was able to address the issues from the patient’s viewpoint regarding the quality of life, fear and anxiety within the context of his/her family setting and social circumstances.             REFERENCES     BARKER, P. 1999. Qualitative Research in Nursing and Health Care. London: NT Books.   BOGDAN, R. C. and BIKLEN, S. K. 1982. Qualitative Research for Education: An introduction to theory and methods. Boston: Allyn and Bacon   BORK, C.E. 1993. Research in Physical Therapy. Philadelphia: J.B. Lippincott Company.   BORKAN, J.M., QUIRK, M. and SULLIVAN, M.1991. Finding meaning after fall: Injury narratives from elderly hip fracture patients. Social Science and Medicine, 33 (8), pp. 947-957.   CAMPBELL, A.J., ROBERTSON, M.C., GARDNER, M.M., NORTON, R.N., TILYARD, M.W. and BUCHNER, D.M. 1997. Randomised control trial of a general practice programme of home based exercise to prevent falls in elderly women. British Medical Journal, 331 October, pp. 1065-1069.   CAMPBELL, A.J., ROBERTSON, M.C, GROW, S.J.L., KERSE, N.M., SANDERSON, G.F., JACOBS, R.J., SHARP, D.M. and HALE, L.A. 2005. Randomised control trial of prevention of falls in people aged ≥75 with severe visual impairment: the VIP trial. British Medical Journal, 331 October, pp. 817-820.   CARTER, N.D., KHAN, K.M., McKAY, H.A., PETIT, M.A., WATERMAN, C., HEINONEN, A., JANSSEN, P.A., DONALDSON, M.G., MALLINSON, A., RIDDELL, L., KRUSE, K., PRIOR, J.C. and FLICKER, L. 2002. Community-based exercise program reduces risk factors for falls in 65-to 75- year-old women with osteoporosis: randomised controlled trial. Canadian Medical Association Journal [Online] 167(9) October, pp. 997-1003. Available from: < http://www.cmaj.ca/cgi/content/full/167/9/997 > [Accessed 28 December 2006].   CRESWELL J.W. 2003. Research design qualitative, quantitative, and mixed method approaches. 2nd edition. London: Sage publications   FIELD, A and HOLE, G. 2003. How to Design and Report Experiments. London: Sage Publications.   FRENCH, S., REYNOLDS, F. and SWAIN, J. 2001. Practical Research A Guide for Therapists. 2nd ed. Oxford: Butterworth Heinemann   GOODWIN, W. L. 1984. Are validity and reliability ‘Relevant’ in Qualitative evaluation research? Evaluation and the Health Professions, 7(4) December, pp. 413-426.   HICKS, C. 2004. Research Methods for Clinical Therapists. 4th ed. Philadelphia: Churchill Livingstone.   HOLLIDAY, A. 2002. Doing and Writing Qualitative Research. London: SAGE Publications.   HOLLOWAY, I. 2005. Qualitative Research in Health Care. Maidenhead: Open University Press   MILES, M. B. and HUBERMAN, A. M. 1994. Qualitative Data Analysis. USA: Sage Publications   POLGAR, S. and THOMAS, S.A. 1995. Introduction to Research in the Health Sciences. 3rd ed. Melbourne: Churchill Livingstone   PUNCH, K. F. 2005. Introduction to Social Research Quantitative and qualitative approaches. London: Sage Publications Ltd.   SCHMOLL, B.J. 1993. Qualitative research. In: Bork, C.E. Research in Physical Therapy. Philadelphia: J.B. Lippincott Company       WORD COUNT – 1655. Credit:ivythesis.typepad.com

ISSUES INVOLVED WHEN USING QUANTITATIVE AND QUALITATIVE METHODOLIGIES IN RESEARCH

MODULE : RESEARCH METHODS 1 MODULE COORDINATOR : TITLE : ISSUES IN...