Research Topics: Smoking Habits

Chronic Pulmonary Disease

Introduction The condition of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), nothing like a good number of other illnesses, is growing in incidence globally. This boost, at least to some extent, is probably as a result of the population surviving much longer generally and increasing cigarette use in developing nations. Moreover, even though contact to cigarette fumes is by a long way, it is the foremost identifiable origin of COPD. Similarly, contact to specific occupational dirt and chemicals have also been deemed to be another cause of COPD. On the other hand, exposures at home in smoke used for cooking and heating are also liable causes. Furthermore, one could not discount the genetic predisposition which might have triggered the illness among the casualties. This paper will look into the condition of a geriatric patient admitted for COPD exacerbation in which complications have taken place before his release. For clarity and coherence of the paper, the discussions and assessment on the stated case will be divided into several parts. One part will be discussing the probable questions that could help the assessment on making out the complications that the patient has acquired. The subsequent part will be discussing the body systems that will be involved in the assessment of the case. It is in this part where the respiratory system and the heart are to be discussed. Specifically, the parts in which the complications might have been involved in the case of the patient are to be taken into consideration. The third part is going to look into the factors in which the patient might encounter risk with regards to the treatment. And finally, after the discussions regarding the situation, a conclusion will be provided with regards to the condition of the patient and concerns with COPD in general. Questions Providing Essential Information In the case study, the patient is admitted in the hospital for exacerbated COPD with complications like pneumonia. An exacerbation of COPD is described by a boost in cough, with an alteration in color or amount of sputum or a worse condition of dyspnea. (Shelley and Salpeter, 2003) Before the patient is discharged, he complained of a pain in the left part of his chest and shortness of breath.    o       Does the patient have a family history of heart problems? o       Does he have a hypertension and high cholesterol in his medical history? o       Has the patient totally stopped smoking tobacco? o       Does the patient feel emotionally strained? o       Is the pain felt underneath the breastbone? o       Is the pain characterized by a prickly, intense, or constricting feeling? o       Does the pain start after a walk or if he leaves his bed? o       Is the pain relieved when the patient gets enough rest? In looking at the response of the patient based on the case, one could suspect that the patient is experiencing an episode of angina. Moreover, if the medical history of the patient is taken into account, one could also presume the existence of a case of chronic heart failure.  Body Systems Included in the Assessment The condition of the elderly patient with COPD is actually possible in terms of acquiring heart diseases. Patients with COPD are at bigger danger of acquiring heart illnesses as compared to asthmatics. (Shelley and Salpeter, 2003) Nevertheless, they similarly possess more severe airway impediments such that they may possibly be more susceptible to small alterations in forced expiratory volume of 1 second. (FEV1) In a study of Shelley and Salpeter (2003), they noted that these patients would make the most from the employment of ß blockers. In a study of Cilli, Uslu, Ozdemir (2004), they noted that patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) have a bigger possibility of fatality from reasons other than COPD. The most frequent comorbid illnesses include hypertension (22%), coronary heart disease (8.9%), diabetes mellitus (7.4%), cancer (6.4%), heart failure (4.9%) and cerebrovascular disease (2%). Whereas  most  said that sicknesses were stated to be the most frequent comorbid factor, FEV1, heart failure and cancer were related components with bigger threat of death from COPD. On the other hand, it was stated that the case may possibly be complicated by a heart condition on the part of the patient, thus, it is important to take a look at the possibility of the patient having a chronic heart failure. Left-sided chronic heart failure (CHF) takes place in patients with COPD for the reason of a concurrent cardiac disorder like coronary artery disease or hypertension. (Wilbert and Aronow, 2003) This is apparently present in the case of the elderly patient considering he had a history of hypercholesterolemia and poorly controlled hypertension. It should be treated in concurrence with the COPD, however, on grounds of financial problems with the patient, it was ceased. Moreover, according to the work of Wilbert and Aronow (2003) it is important to establish whether the patient has really stopped smoking. If he did stop, it must be established whether he has been constantly exposed to other probable sources of COPD, like secondary cigarette smoke or chemical dusts. Another system to be checked is the respiratory tract. (Wilbert and Aronow, 2003) It should be checked if it is infected. If it is infected, it might lead to RV failure. This means that it should be treated quickly. To look if the tract is indeed infected,   the secretions of the sputum should be monitored to establish whether there is a need to employ mucolytic agents to address this condition. Risk Factors in the Patient’s Condition This part will be discussing the risk factors involved in the condition of the patient. Particularly, those related to the lifestyle choices, medications, and conditions are going to be pointed out in this context.    Conditions The patient might have exacerbated his condition because of his being bed-ridden for several days caused by his COPD exacerbation. This might have triggered the heart condition that has been caused by his previous illnesses GERD, hypercholesterolemia, and hypertension over and above his exposure to smoking. His old age has also added the risk of the heart condition. Having a geriatric patient lessens the capability and speed of recovery because of the slower metabolism of the patient. Similarly, the inactivity of the patient might have also triggered the disease since he has been confined for several days already. This inactivity might have slowed down his already slow metabolism rate and might have triggered the illness along with the help of the COPD.  Lifestyle choices There are two lifestyle choices that should be looked into in taking into account of the risk factors present in the patient’s condition. First is the existence of alcohol abuse or withdrawal. Alcohol consumption is associated with a favorable lipid profile. (Mozaffarian et al, 2004) On the other hand, greater intake is associated to brain atrophy. Another lifestyle choice is smoking. Cigarette smoking is a well recognized risk factor for illnesses among adolescent and grown-up populations. Older adults who have ceased smoking have inferior risk than those who carry on smoking. (Mozaffarian et al, 2004) However, continuous exposure to cigarette smokes such that of second hand smoke may still trigger the risk factor. Medications Early methods for the management of COPD are in a lot of aspects considerably unlike from current recommendations. At first, the amount of pharmacologic agents accessible to take care of COPD was inadequate. Antibiotics, mucolytics, and nonselective sympathomimetics were the key agents provided for COPD management. (Petty, 2002) Paradoxically, oxygen and working out a couple of the most common elements of treatment today were deemed harmful. Antibiotics have been accessible to take care of patients with COPD for years and frequently were controlled consistently in patients with obstructive lung disease. Even though patients with COPD are more vulnerable to pulmonary illnesses than those patients with no COPD and management of these agents is an essential element of the management of infection connected with COPD, antibiotic treatment must be employed more prudently nowadays than it was in the past. Antibiotic resistance formerly was recognized in the 1970s and has been growing progressively in commonness. (Faulkner and Hilleman, 2002) On account of this occurrence, patients nowadays are monitored more cautiously for antibiotic requirement. (Saint et al, 2001) On the other hand, mucolytic drugs are deemed to boost the expectoration of sputum by lessening its thickness. (Faulkner and Hilleman, 2002) More than a few years ago, mucolytic treatment with an oral mixture of potassium iodide was provided to dilute the mucus of patients with COPD. (Petty, 2002) Nowadays, it would be atypical to see this agent employed in such ability to view its possibly harmful implications in individuals with thyroid disease, and for the reason that other mucolytic agents are readily obtainable. In addition, the effectiveness of mucolytic agents for a good number of patients with COPD has been challenged. Merely lessening the thickness of mucus may possibly be useless with no general reduction in the quantity of mucus emitted. (Rogers, 2002) Conclusion Patients who are indicative with constant COPD have need of a range of interventions to optimize their way of life and continued existence. Conditional on their individual conditions, they may possibly take advantage from making the most of airflow, lessening and clearance of secretions, physical treatment, averting infections, and guaranteeing sufficient oxygenation. The different components can be brought in eventually with cautious inspection to establish which intercession has constructive (or adverse) consequences. Responsiveness of other disorders that are frequent among those with COPD will assist in early detection, cure, or prevention. Punctual acknowledgment and efficient administration of acute exacerbations of COPD are necessary. Moreover, facts from this study advocates that diet, physical activity, and smoking habits in the later part of a person’s life may have an effect with health risk. Corresponding to medical or surgical intercessions, such lifestyle alterations are comparatively low risk, low rate, and extensively pertinent. Consequently, even small alterations in risk because of these elements may possibly be important on a population level. Credit:ivythesis.typepad.com

Chronic Pulmonary Disease

Introduction The condition of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), nothing like a good number of other illnesses, is growing...

Smoking in United Kingdom

Cigarette smokers are known to be more frequently involved in driving accidents; it has been found that extraverts tend to be more frequently involved in driving accidents than are introverts. It has been found that divorced people tend to smoke more whereas single people tend not to smoke; we have already noted that introverts tend to marry less and extraverts to be more frequently involved in a change of marital partner. It has been found that people who change jobs frequently tend to smoke more; again extraverts are known to change jobs more frequently. Several studies have tended to show that people who are relatively unsuccessful academically, both at school and university, tend to smoke more; it has also been found that introverts are more successful at school and at university. People who smoke a lot have been found to be ‘chance oriented’; this agrees well with the findings that extraverts tend to be impulsive. Many European studies have also been concerned with neuroticism or emotionality, and it must be said that here agreement is much less obvious. Most of the European studies have found a positive relationship between smoking and neuroticism. Admittedly many of these studies were carried out on relatively small groups, and in most cases groups chosen were quite unrepresentative. Nevertheless, the amount of agreement reported must make one cautious of dismissing these results. The European report summarizes the findings in the following sentence: ‘Despite the individual deficiencies of many of the studies, despite the great diversity in conceptualization and research methods used and despite discrepancies in reported findings the presence of some comparability between them and the relative consistency of findings lend support to the existence of a relationship between the smoking habit and a personality configuration that is vaguely described as “neurotic”.’ The tortured structure and syntax of this sentence adequately indicate the difficulty which the authors had in coming to a conclusion on this point; it must be left to further research to say whether the difference between our findings and those mentioned are due to national differences between England and America or whether there is some other cause for the discrepancy. Smoking Cessation The 1990 U.K. Surgeon General’s Report ( U.K. Department of Health and Human Services, 1990) stated that smoking during pregnancy is related with premature birth, increased respiratory problems among infants and young children, and sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS). Maternal smoking also increases the risk of abruptio placentae, placenta previa, and bleeding early or late in pregnancy, all of which increase the risk for perinatal loss Finally, efforts to help women end or lessen smoking during pregnancy become a main concern of obstetric providers. Smoking cessation programs, the committee found that one-on-one sessions with a counselor or a physician are among the most effective prenatal smoking cessation strategies. They also found that although group counseling appears to be less effective, social support seems to be critical to reducing or eliminating pregnant women’s smoking. Given the enormous toll cigarette smoking is taking on pregnancy outcomes and child health, prenatal and postpartum smoking cessation is a critical priority. Unfortunately, few institutionalized smoking cessation initiatives exist within prenatal care programs. In October 1994, with the prenatal smoking cessation program (PSCP) aimed first and foremost at providers working in inner-city communities and serving diverse populations (Chaloupka:1991). The project seeks to help prenatal care providers implement smoking cessation programs in their facilities. Smoking is a serious health concern among college students today. There is a large portion of the smoking public and could have a unique chance to stop smoking through college smoking cessation program (Jason and Malone:1990). The smoking cessation will give a two-credit college smoking cessation course. The sessions will train the student about the impact of smoking to their health. Student mentors, who were previous smokers, will provide support for students outside of the classroom and at the end of the semester students who were successful in quitting smoking will have the opportunity to become smoking cessation mentors themselves. Many smokers want to quit, but few succeed in it. Integrating this cessation program in a college course could aid student smokers in their quitting efforts. Another study attempted to utilize these components in a comprehensive worksite program (Winstanley, Woodward and Walker:1995). There was a significant difference in quit rates between individuals in the group (G) condition (42%) versus those in the nongroup (NG) condition (15%). At the 6-month data point, 29% of G participants and 20% of NG participants were abstinent. A year after the program’s onset, 26% of G participants were abstinent as compared with 16% of NG participants. In addition, significantly more participants in G (12%) reported continuous cessation than did those in NG (5%). As these figures indicate, higher smoking cessation rates were found in companies that were provided 12 monthly booster sessions plus incentives. The present study presents the data collected 24 months following the beginning of the project. This program suggests several important components for assisting smokers at worksites in quitting and maintaining a smoke-free life-style. Several limitations of this study include the reliance on self-report measures without biochemical verification and the combined use of both support groups and incentives in one condition. Future research should attempt to isolate the specific influences of the support groups, self-help materials, and incentives. The present data identify several areas that might be altered to increase cessation rates. These include follow-up support groups after initial cessation efforts, provision of regular incentives for continued abstinence, and use of the media as a method of reinforcing utilization of cessation strategies (Jason, Salina, et al., 1991). Given the health risks of smoking and the costs to firms and society, we endorse the need for smoking bans. Currently, there is a wave of legislative efforts to mandate nonsmoking areas. In a recent survey of 280 private California corporations with more than 500 employees, 87% had adopted formal worksite smoking policies (Schauffler, 1993). These efforts may improve the effectiveness of worksite cessation programs, as well as diminish smoking rates in public areas. Worksite smoking cessation programs appear capable of assisting many smokers to quit and enjoy healthier, more productive life-styles while maintaining cost efficiency and reaching many individuals. Media interventions represent a cost-effective method of reaching many more individuals than traditional smoking cessation programs, and their efficacy in cessation efforts should continue to be explored. In addition, the role of incentives and support groups need to be delineated more clearly to ascertain under what circumstances incentives are most effective (Malone & Jason, 1990). Worksites offer many unique characteristics that make them excellent environments for smoking cessation programs including organizational norms and group identity. Researchers should continue to investigate how to design effective smoking cessation programs that can be accommodated to worksites. References Chaloupka, F. (1991), ‘Rational Addictive Behaviour and Cigarette Smoking,’ Journal of Political Economy 99, August, 722-42. Jason, L. A., Salina, D. D., Hedeker, D., Kimball, P., Kaufman, J., Bennett, P., Bernstein, R., & Lesondak, L. (1991). Designing an effective worksite smoking cessation program using self-help manuals, incentives, groups and media. Journal of Business and Psychology, 6(1), 155-166. Malone, S. W., & Jason, L. A. (1990). Using incentives, lotteries, and competitions in worksite smoking cessation interventions. In R. R. Watson (Ed.), Drug and alcohol abuse prevention. (pp. 313-327). London: Routledge. Schauffler, H. H. (1993). Integrating smoking control policies into employee benefits: A survey of large California corporations. Journal of Public Health, 83, 1226-1230. Winstanley, M., Woodward, S. and Walker, N. (1995), Tobacco in United Kingdom: Facts and Issues, Victorian Smoking and Health Program. Ear Wax Removal: Drops or Syringing? Ear wax is a common creation of the ear which keeps the skin of the ear from water and infection. Ear wax is produced in wax glands in the outer ear canal as well as other sections such as dead skin, sweat, and oil. The main element of ear wax is keratin (derived from dead skin). Ear wax therefore is slightly different from cerumen which is the secretory product of the ceruminous glands in the outer auditory canal (Hawke, 2002). While ear wax is usually purely felt to be a irritation, in medieval times, ear wax was utilized as a part of coloring for lighting of manuscripts (Petrakis, 2000). Different individuals differ significantly in the quantity and regularity of their ear wax. There are two kinds illustrated, wet and dry, which are innate. Dry wax is widespread in Asia, while wet wax is frequent in Western Europe. Dry wax, also known as “rice-bran wax”, have 20% lipid. Extraordinarily, rice-bran wax is related with a lower occurrence of breast cancer (Hawke, 2002). Wet wax contains 50% lipid (Burkhart et al, 2000). Wet wax can be both soft or hard, the hard wax being more probably to be impacted. Too little ear wax raise the risk of infection (Fairey et al, 1985). Too much wax also increases the occurrence of infection and impairment of hearing. A study of this, some individuals is “wax producers”, and others stay wax free without much maintenance (Bankaitis and Kelso. 2005). <li class="MsoNormal" style="LINE-HEIGHT: 200%; TEXT-ALIGN: justify">Wax can block up the ear, resulting to reduce hearing, and a full feeling in the ear. This is called an “impaction”. There are about 2.6% of patients has an ear wax impaction at any time. </li> <li class="MsoNormal" style="LINE-HEIGHT: 200%; TEXT-ALIGN: justify">Wax can entrap bacteria in the ear, this may lead to infection. This is frequently painful or at least itchy. </li> <li class="MsoNormal" style="LINE-HEIGHT: 200%; TEXT-ALIGN: justify">Ear wax damage vision when the doctor looks in your ears, possibly hiding a dangerous process. </li> According to a medical study, ear wax can be removed by using water jets or drops that sucks the hard wax (Burkart:2000). A doctor can also use instruments. If a person has chronic ear disease, a damage of the ear drum, or has wax in their only hearing ear, it is suggested to have wax eradicated by an otolaryngology doctor under direct vision. If there is a puncture in the ear drum, or a sound possibility of a perforation, wax should be removed by instruments and/or suction, and not by irrigation. Syringing is a normal method of wax removal and just about 150,000 ears are irrigated each week in the United Kingdom (Grossan, 1998). To shun inducing dizziness, body temperature water is preferred. While syringing is a traditional and acknowledged method of ear wax removal, it has many weaknesses contrasted to removal than drops. For example, in the unusual occasions when there is a puncture under the wax, syrnging may force water and wax into the middle ear, causing a nidus for infection. Syringing also puts the ear to threat for bacterial infection. Some medical practitioners suggest placing 1 or 2 drops of Domeboro, Vosol or Cortisporin otic in the irrigated canal to stop infection. Syringing should not be used in ears with puntures. Another study stated that there are some instances wax is hardened and impossible to remove with syringing. In this condition one may put an effort to soften the wax with oil and return in one week for another attempt. Suction may be helpful in this situation. Current research proved that counter drops is more effective in removing hard wax using water, oil and peroxide solutions like Debrox. Other solutions can be tap water, 10% sodium bicarbonate, 3% hydrogen peroxide, 2% acetic acid and a combination of 0.5% aluminum acetate and .03% benzethonium chloride. Hydrogen peroxide commonly melts ear wax because of its mechanical effect. When it comes to oil-based organic solutions are olive oil, glycerin, propylene glycol, and others. Warm solutions must be used for wax removal is more advantageous. According to Hawke, oil based solutions essentially do nothing but lubricate (Hawke, 2002). Some solutions used for ear wax removal are enzyme based. However, this may cause allergies to the patient.  Some patients, a wax plug blocks the ear so one cannot know for sure if a puncture is present. Though in this case, it is usually achievable to make an educated guess with a reasonable degree of reliability (Hawke, 2002). There are also preparations intended to dissolve ear wax — for example, Cerumenex Ear Drops and Murine Ear drops. A recent study suggested that neither of these preparations are any better than salt water (placebo). (Roland , 2004). Credit:ivythesis.typepad.com

Smoking in United Kingdom

Cigarette smokers are known to be more frequently involved in driving accidents; it has been found that extraverts tend to be more fre...

Mucoactive drugs for asthma and COPD

Introduction The condition of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), nothing like a good number other illnesses, is growing in incidence globally. This boost, at least to some extent, is probably as a result of the population surviving much longer generally and increasing cigarette use in developing nations. Moreover, even though contact to cigarette fumes is by a long way the foremost identifiable origin of COPD. Similarly contact to specific occupational dirt and chemicals have also been deemed to be another cause of COPD. On the other hand, exposures in the home like being exposed to the smoke used for cooking and heating are also liable causes. Furthermore, one could not discount the genetic predisposition which might have triggered the illness among the casualties. This paper will look into the condition of a geriatric patient admitted for COPD exacerbation in which complications have taken place before his release. For clarity and coherence of the paper, the discussions and assessment on the stated case will be divided into several parts. One part will be discussing the probable questions that could help the assessment on making out the complications that the patient has acquired. The subsequent part will be discussing the body systems that will be involved in the assessment of the case. It is in this part where the respiratory system and the heart are to be discussed. Specifically, the parts in which the complications might have been involved in the case of the patient is to be taken into consideration. The third part is going to look into the factors in which the patient might encounter risk with regards to the treatment. And finally, after the discussions regarding the situation, a conclusion will be provided with regards to the condition of the patient and concerns with COPD in general.   Questions Providing Essential Information In the case study, the patient is admitted in the hospital for exacerbated COPD with complications like pneumonia. An exacerbation of COPD is described by a boost in cough, with an alteration in color or amount of sputum or a worse condition of dyspnea.  Before the patient is discharged, he complained of a pain in the left part of his chest and shortness of breath.    o       Does the patient have a family history of heart problems? o       Does he have a hypertension and high cholesterol in his medical history? o       Has the patient totally stopped smoking tobacco? o       Does the patient feel emotionally strained? o       Is the pain felt underneath the breastbone? o       Is the pain characterized by a prickly, intense, or constricting feeling? o       Does the pain start after a walk or if he leaves his bed? o       Is the pain relieved when the patient gets enough rest? In looking in the response of the patient based on the case, one could suspect that the patient is experiencing an episode of angina. Moreover, if the medical history of the patient is taken into account, one could also presume the existence of a case of chronic heart failure.     Body Systems Included in the Assessment   The condition of the elderly patient with COPD is actually possible in terms of acquiring heart diseases. Patients with COPD are at bigger danger of acquiring heart illnesses as compared to asthmatics. Nevertheless, they similarly possess more severe airway impediments such that they may possibly be more susceptible to small alterations in forced expiratory volume at 1 second. (FEV1) They noted that these patients would make the most from the employment of ß blockers.   They noted that patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) have a bigger possibility of fatality from reasons other than COPD. The most frequent comorbid illnesses include hypertension (22%), coronary heart disease (8.9%), diabetes mellitus (7.4%), cancer (6.4%), heart failure (4.9%) and cerebrovascular disease (2%). Whereas the most the said sicknesses were stated to be the most frequent comorbid factor, FEV1, heart failure and cancer were related components with bigger threat of death from COPD.   On the other hand, it was stated that the case may possibly be complicated by a heart condition on the part of the patient, it is important to take a look at the possibility of the patient having a chronic heart failure. Left-sided chronic heart failure (CHF) takes place in patients with COPD for the reason of a concurrent cardiac disorder like coronary artery disease or hypertension. This is apparently present in the case of the elderly patient considering he had a history of hypercholesterolemia and poorly controlled hypertension. It should be treated in concurrence with the COPD, however, on grounds of financial problems with the patient, it was ceased. Moreover, according to the work of it is important to establish whether the patient really has stopped smoking. If he did stop, it must be established whether he has been constantly exposed to other probable sources of COPD, like secondary cigarette smoke or chemical dusts.   Another system to be checked is the respiratory tract. It should be checked if it is infected. If it is infected, it might lead to RV failure. This means that it should be treated quickly. To look if the tract is indeed infected,   the secretions of the sputum should be monitored to establish whether there is a need to employ mucolytic agents to address this condition.   Risk Factors in the Patient’s Condition This part will be discussing the risk factors involved in the condition of the patient. Particularly, those related to the lifestyle choices, medications, and conditions are going to be pointed out in this context.     Conditions The patient might have exacerbated his condition because of his being bed-ridden for several days caused by his COPD exacerbation. This might have triggered the heart condition that has been caused by his previous illnesses GERD, hypercholesterolemia, and hypertension over and above his exposure to smoking. His old age has also added the risk of the heart condition. Having a geriatric patient lessens the capability and speed of recovery because of the slower metabolism of the patient. Similarly, the inactivity of the patient might have also triggered the disease since he has been confined for several days already. This inactivity might have slowed down his already slow metabolism rate and might have triggered the illness along with the help of the COPD.   Lifestyle choices There are two lifestyle choices that should be looked into in taking into account the risk factors present in the patient’s condition. First is the existence of alcohol abuse or withdrawal. Alcohol consumption is associated with a favorable lipid profile.  On the other hand, greater intake is associated with brain atrophy. Another lifestyle choice is smoking. Cigarette smoking is a well recognized risk factor for illnesses among adolescent and grown-up populations. Older adults who have ceased smoking have inferior risk than those who carry on smoking. However, continuous exposure to cigarette smokes such that of second hand smoke may still trigger the risk factor. Medications Early methods for the management of COPD are in a lot of aspects considerably unlike from current recommendations. At first, the amount of pharmacologic agents accessible to take care of COPD was inadequate. Antibiotics, mucolytics, and nonselective sympathomimetics were the key agents provided for COPD management. Paradoxically, oxygen and working out, a couple of the most common elements of treatment today were deemed harmful.   Antibiotics have been accessible to take care of patients with COPD for years and frequently were controlled consistently in patients with obstructive lung disease. Even though patients with COPD are more vulnerable to pulmonary illnesses than are patients with no COPD and management of these agents is an essential element of the management of infection connected with COPD, antibiotic treatment must be employed more prudently nowadays than it was in the past. Antibiotic resistance formerly was recognized in the 1970s and has been growing progressively in commonness. (Faulkner and Hilleman, 2002) On account of this occurrence, patients nowadays are monitored more cautiously for antibiotic requirement.   On the other hand, mucolytic drugs are deemed to boost the expectoration of sputum by lessening its thickness. More than a few years ago, mucolytic treatment with an oral mixture of potassium iodide was provided to dilute the mucus of patients with COPD. Nowadays, it would be atypical to see this agent employed in such ability in view of its possibly harmful implications in individuals with thyroid disease, and for the reason that other mucolytic agents are readily obtainable. In addition, the effectiveness of mucolytic agents for a good number of patients with COPD has been challenged. Merely lessening the thickness of mucus may possibly be useless with no general reduction in the quantity of mucus emitted.   Conclusion   Patients who are indicative with constant COPD have need of a range of interventions to optimize their way of life and continued existence. Conditional on their individual conditions, they may possibly take advantage from making the most of airflow, lessening and clearance of secretions, physical treatment, averting infections, and guaranteeing sufficient oxygenation. The different components can be brought in eventually with cautious inspection to establish which intercession has constructive (or adverse) consequences. Responsiveness of other disorders that are frequent among those with COPD will assist in early detection, cure, or prevention. Punctual acknowledgment and efficient administration of acute exacerbations of COPD are necessary. Moreover, facts from this study advocates that diet, physical activity, and smoking habits in the later part of a person’s life may have an effect with health risk. Corresponding to medical or surgical intercessions, such lifestyle alterations are comparatively low risk, low rate, and extensively pertinent. Consequently, even small alterations in risk because of these elements may possibly be important on a population level.     Credit:ivythesis.typepad.com

Mucoactive drugs for asthma and COPD

Introduction The condition of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), nothing like a good number other illnesses, is growing ...

Primary Health Care of Children and Adolescents Assignment

Mortality is defined as the number of deaths (from a disease or in general) per 1000 people and typically reported in annual (yearly) basis. It is primarily distinguished by the following: crude death rate (a measure of one mortality from all causes which may result in a decrease in a population), infant mortality rate (measures the risk of dying during the 1st year of life per 1,000 live births. It is a good index of the general health condition of a community since it reflects the changes in the environmental and medical conditions of the community; maternal mortality rate (measures the risk of dying related to pregnancy, childbirth and pueperium per 1000 live birth); fetal death rate or perinatal death rate (measure pregnancy wastage per 1,000 births. Death of the product of conception occurs prior to its completion, irrespective of duration of its pregnancy); standardized mortality rate (SMR) or age-specific mortality rate (ASMR) – This refers to the total number of deaths per 1000 people of a given age (e.g. 16-65 or 65+). In the district of Waikato where in, the highest of Maori mortality and morbidity rate in children ages’ 1- 14 was in Rural Waikato. They make up the 37.5% (Rural Waikato) and 26.2% (urban Waikato) in the over all population of the Waikato district.  The top 10 Report is the first significant overview of the most important indicators of child and youth health in the Auckland and Waikato regions. These are the details: (1) Infant mortality (2) Maori mortality (3) Youth mortality (4) Avoidable hospitalizations (5) Infectious disease rates (6) Asthma admissions (7) Lower respiratory tract admissions (8) births to teenage mothers (9) dental health and, (10) hearing loss. Given the data, we shall take note that primary health care providers shall ensure accessibility and quality health care in order to improve the general health status of the people. In the context of morbidity rate, which is refers to either to the incidence rate or to the prevalence rate of a disease. The leading cause of morbidity rate is asthma causes high morbidity, with high rates for school (and later work) absenteeism, recurrent primary care presentations (generally requiring repeated courses of oral antibiotics), and hospitalisation with exacerbations requiring intravenous antibiotics. This is mostly high in Maoris’ children and adult, followed by the pacific children. In particular, we shall focus in the promotion of health and disease prevention. How? By proper assessment (physical examination, interview and observation and at the same time evaluating previous records in the health center); Diagnosis is needed for planning purposes which comprises of the statement of the unhealthy task and the statement of the factors, which are maintaining the undesirable response. Planning, at this point, there must be a consideration of the community members with the primary health care provider so, as to promote self-reliance. There must also be prioritisation of the problem using the fallowing criteria: (1) nature of the problem, (2) modifiability (3) preventive potential (4) salience. Interventions must be competency-based teaching since; one way to stimulate learning is through health teachings. Evaluation is utilized as to validate the following interventions if it’s effective, efficient, adequate and appropriate. Health is measured by the increase of life expectancy of an individual, group or population. There are multiple factors that determine health of a person. These are genetic, lifestyle, environmental and socioeconomic factors. When we say genetic these refers to the genes of the individual how it cope with present environment; individual lifestyle such as drinking and smoking habit, carcinogenic diet with less fruits and vegetables, and no exercise; environmental factors would refer to improper waste disposal, unhygienic eating habits and lack of drainage system in the community. Socioeconomic factors determine the health status of every individual. Primarily, it is because access to effective health care services of reasonable quality is an essential requirement in an advanced society but due to the presence of poverty not all individuals have that access. If possible, there must be a relative distribution of wealth. Health is best served in more socially unified, equal societies with smaller burden of relative deprivation while in developed societies they have government and non-government that organizations that funds health care provider in order to be of service to the least fortunate ones or to those individuals whose location is way far from the main health care provider. Socioeconomic inequality such as unemployment, inferior housing facilities, and over populated areas are determinants of a slower development and the quality of life is poorer since, health would be their least priority. They have to meet first their basic needs such as food, clothing and shelter and if they become ill, it is likely for them to self-medicate due to the reason that their budget is limited or sometimes they don’t pay attention to their health. With that, there will be exacerbation of the symptoms thus, resulting to complications and possibly death. Part II:             Interventions would be efficient and effective by knowing the etiology of the problem and its causative factors in order to render symptomatic treatment as well as medical treatment. Problem: Asthma in age groups 1-14 yrs old is one of the leading causes of morbidity rate. Etiology: Asthma is a chronic inflammatory disorder of the airways that cause airway hyperresponsiveness, mucosal edema and mucus production. The inflammation ultimately leads to recurrent episodes of asthma symptoms: cough, chest tightness, wheezing, and dyspnea. What differentiates asthma from other obstructive lung disease is that it is entirely reversible, either spontaneously or with treatment. Cough with or without mucus production, dyspnea and wheezing. Asthma attacks often occur at night or early in the morning, possibly due to circadian variations that influence airway receptor thresholds Predisposing factors: Chronic exposure to airway irritants or allergens increases the risk for developing asthma. Common allergens can be seasonal (eg, grass, tree, and weed pollens) or perennial (eg, mold, dust roaches, or animal dander) Precipitating Factors: These are Airway irritants (eg, air pollutants, cold, heat, weather changes, strong odors or perfumes, smoke), exercise, stress, emotional upsets, sinusitis with post-natal drip, medications, viral respiratory tract infections, gastroesophageal reflux. Overview of Nursing Interventions is done through educational home-visits and in the clinical setting: Home-based Management: <li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%"> Provide patient teaching covering:  ways to prevent asthma attacks, such as avoiding allergens through allergen-impermeable covers on the child’s mattress, box spring and pillows; air purifiers with high efficiency particulate air (HEPA) filters, Vacuum cleaners equipped with HEPA filters and professional pest control.</li> <li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%">  Proper use of medication.</li> <li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%"> Anxiety control and breathing exercises.</li> Pharmacological Management: <li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%"> Administer bronchodilators (medications that enlarge bronchial tubes), steroids, and oxygen as ordered.</li> <li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%"> Administer antibiotics, as prescribed, to prevent secondary infections or complications such as status asthmaticus.</li> <li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%"> Provide inhalant therapy when indicated.</li> <li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%"> Provide bronchial hygiene when indicated.</li>                Potential Barriers to care chiefly would be patient’s compliance in the medication regimen. The primary measure(s) of adherence must be one or more well-defined, valid and reliable assessments of individual-level patient adherence behavior. The adherence intervention(s) must be designed to improve patient adherence by targeting the individual patient, his/her formal or informal health-care providers, the health care system or environment, or a combination of these. It must start from the patient whose mind set is to heal his self in order to deliver the care effectively. If patient and the primary health care providers aren’t that interested to undergo such actions, prevention of re-occurrence wouldn’t be possible. It is always best to say, “Prevention is better than cure.” Second, there must be lifestyle modifications such as increase fluid intake, integrate fruits and vegetables in the diet and exercises that the body can tolerate; consecutively this is done, to get the desired effect of the interventions implemented. Explaining that this is one way to gear up or boost the immune system against harmful antigens. There must also be a need to modify the environment by maintaining cleanliness at home. To add another barrier would be the inadequate availability of resources and lack of primary health care providers in rendering care.  It is essential that these two are adequate enough in every district; since the main target here are of those hard to reach areas mostly of financial instability status that at times, with no appropriate educational background, a competent care giver must go for a home visit(s) to enforce health teachings and at the same, for them to realize their faulty actions that had resulted to undesirable health status. Moment of realization must be emphasize for one to make an account of the unhealthy actions and replaced it with the appropriate behaviour towards healthy living. Part III                A guideline describes critical decision points in assessment, diagnosis, treatment and evaluation of treatment. Guidelines must be based on the actual and potential problems that were identified and prioritized. This is critical in implementation of the planned care in order to meet the objectives that have been set. Therefore, they could keep track the ups and downs of the agency and be able to give way for further revisions if needed for the betterment of their services. Guidelines to address a problem through the Nursing Process: 1.      Scope and nature of the problem. In here one must present relevant data that constitutes the emergence and escalating rise of the said disease in children through bar graphs from previous and recent years; through demographic data, vital health statistics, community dynamics such as studies of disease surveillance and utilization of health services. In turn, survey could be done if the said assessment was reliable and in fact, manageable in years to come. Assessment provides an estimate of the degree to which a family, group or community is achieving the level of health possible for them, identifies specific deficiencies or guidance needed and estimates possible effects of nursing interventions. 2.      Setting of goals. A goal is a declaration of purpose or intent that gives essential direction to action. Specific Objectives of care are made with the individual or family in terms of activities of daily living, and adaptive functioning based on remaining capabilities resulting from this condition and capability to cope with his or her disease condition or environment. These objectives are stated in behavioral terms: specific, measurable, attainable, realistic and time-bounded. The nurses prioritizes these objectives. 3.      Constructing an Action plan. This is concerned with choosing among from the possible courses of actions selecting the appropriate types of intervention, identifying appropriate and available resources for care and developing an operational plan. The course of action may have positive and/ or negative effects. The positive consequences must be weighed against those with negative aspects. The ability of the family to cope or solve its own problems and make decisions on health matters should be considered. The most appropriate action is selected such as those clients could not perform by themselves, those that facilitate actions that remove barriers to care and that those improve the capacity of the clients to act in their better half. The appropriate resources are identified which include the family, neighborhood, the schools, the industrial population; the whole medical system – the hospitals, clinic, public and private practitioners of medicine, health units of welfare departments, voluntary health agencies, and other health related agencies: non-health facilities such as social educational and counseling agencies. 4.      Developing an operational plan. To develop an operational plan, the community health nurse must establish priorities, phase and coordinate activities. Plans of care are prioritize in order of urgency to determine those that need the earliest client (individual, family or community.) These plans are broken down to manageable units and properly sequenced. Periodic evaluation and modification of the plan is necessary. The plan and activities should be coordinated with various services so that it would synchronize with the total health program. Development of evaluation parameters is done in the planning stage and based on the standards set by the nursing services, problems identified, goals and priorities as reflected in the plan or program of nursing care for the clients. 5.      Implementation of planned care. This involves various nursing interventions which have been determined by the goals or objectives which have been previously set.  The primary health nurses carry out nursing procedures which are consistent with the nursing care plan, are adapted to present situations which promote safe and therapeutic environment. The primary health nurses involve the patient and his or her families in the care provided in order to motivate them to assume responsibility for his / their care, and able to teach and maintain desired level of function, explaining client’s confidence and ability to care himself/ themselves. Thus, the role of the primary health nurse shifts from direct care give to that of a teacher. To maintain his/her optimum level of functioning, the client needs the support of how own knowledge and that of those around him/her. The utilization of the support system provides a harmonious, orderly care to enable to function optimally. He/ she become his/her own best to get services for help. Friends, neighbors, church members, community agencies, organization both government and private are various resources that can be tapped. The nurses monitor the health services provided and make proper referrals. Documentation is an important function primary health nurses. This provide data which is needed to plan the client’s care and ensure its continuity; serves an important communication tool for various team members; furnishes written evidence were made in his/her plan of care and whether  such has been effective. They are legal records to protect the agency and the health care providers or the client himself/herself. They also provide data for research and education. 6.      Evaluation if care and services provided. Evaluation is interwoven in every nursing activity and every step of the primary health nurses. Structural elements include the physical setting, instrumentalities and conditions through which nursing care is given such philosophy, objectives, building organizational structure, financial resources such as budget, equipment and staff. Outcome elements are changes in the client’s health status that result from nursing intervention. These changes refer to the results of care provided and clients served, includes modification of symptom, signs, knowledge, attitudes, satisfaction of those served/including members of the nursing and health team; skill level and compliance with treatment regimen. Quality assurance efforts are now recommend that evaluation of structure process and outcomes criteria be made. This will evaluate the effectiveness of nursing care needs or changes in behavior, condition, or compliance.          Evaluation based on professional practice include conformity with the accepted community and public standard of practice, continued refinement and enhancement of nursing skills through continued field experience and a program of continuing education.          Evaluation based on structure include the cost-benefit ratio, qualifications and the number of members of the health team especially nurses in proportion to the populations served and the material resources in the terms of quantity and quality.          Evaluation based on information gathered is utilized to improve community health nursing services as part of the total community health services. Credit:ivythesis.typepad.com

Primary Health Care of Children and Adolescents Assignment

Mortality is defined as the number of deaths (from a disease or in general) per 1000 people and typically reported in annual (yearly) bas...

Factors that Affect’s a Person’s Tendency of Smoking in Nonsmoking Areas

Introduction             Smoking continues to be a problem among many individuals worldwide. An attempt to decrease availability to those less than 18 years of age resulted in a law that requires proof of age to purchase cigarettes. Cigarette smoking by women is also a growing health concern. However, enforcement is far from being met. In many public places, smoking is allowed and even minor aged individuals can smoke. The decision to smoke may be reflective of self-concept issues and may be culturally influenced. Awareness of risk factors is essential for implementation of preventive health care in a variety of health care settings.             A ban on smoking was put down in Hong Kong, only leaving a few designated areas for smoking. However, many observed that people still smoke in non-smoking areas. In this project, we would concentrate on: (1)                     The factors that push people to smoke in non-smoking areas and not in the designated smoking areas. (2)                     To be able to determine the percentage of smokers smoking at no-smoking areas in parks and playgrounds of LCSD (including the ratio of male : female) We hope that through this research, we may be able to shed light on the matter of people smoking in non-smoking areas and the reasons behind their adamant response to smoking ban.   Methodology             For this research study, the author will employ a combination of qualitative method and quantitative methods. This was so because our study needed an in-depth look at why smokers continue to smoke in non-designated areas despite the smoking ban. Also, we needed to use the quantitative method because the one of objectives of the study is to find out if the percentage of smokers in the non-smoking area and the smokers in designated areas, furthermore, we also need to determine the ratio between female and male smokers.             At a designated hour, the number of smokers in designated and non-designated areas will be counted. An informal semi-structured interview with focus group smokers in non-smoking areas will be conducted. Three public parks and playgrounds in Hong Kong under management of the LCSD, with designated smoking areas will be used as the main surveillance area for the research.          Findings and Discussions   Factors that affect’s a person’s tendency of smoking in nonsmoking   areas             According to most of my interviewees, they smoke in restricted areas due to a number of reasons. One reason is that they smoke there because: Ø      Smoking areas are too crowded and noisy, making the experience of smoking there unpleasant. – Many of the smokers tend to smoke to be able to find a time of solitude. One respondent stated that he smokes in order to keep away from his nagging housewife for the time being. However, when he chooses to go to the park to smoke, he finds the smoking area too crowded. Therefore, he opts to smoke in the restricted area to be able to enjoy a moment of solitude. Ø      Smoking in the restricted area gives smokers a chance to think things over alone. – Again, this reason seems to be quite related to the first reason stated; however, I deemed this reason has to be separated from the first one due to the fact that this reason focuses greatly on the person’s reasons. A respondent stated that he smokes to be able to think things out. Everyday life for him was a parade of problems, so in order for him to be able to straighten things out, he goes to the park to smoke. But he says that he needs more peace and quiet than the designated area can offer so he opts to smoke in restricted areas. Ø      Restricted areas have been their smoking places even before the ban was drafted. – Many smokers have been smoking in the restricted sections of parks before the ban was put into place. These people have already found a niche in these areas. However, due to the ban, most of them were forced to abide to the rules and abandon these places. But many smokers still smoke in these areas despite the restriction. According to one, he is not comfortable smoking in any other area, so he opts to smoke in the restricted areas. These reasons are the responses given out by the smokers from these areas. Most of the reasons why they smoke are personal and are often influenced by the environment. Due to the inconvenience that the ban has brought to them, many people are asking for the lift of the ban, stating that the ban will not be able to do any good to other people. They say that even if the government does implement a ban and keeps smokers in a restricted area, the fumes from their cigarettes will still reach others so they point out that the ban is truly pointless.   Percentage of persons smoking in no-smoking areas in parks and playgrounds of LCSD (including the ratio of male: female)  Total number of people who smoked in the park from the 1st to the 3rd logs:   1st log 2nd log 3rd log total Total 165 123 96 384 Male 93 87 74 254 Female 72 36 22 130   Total number of people who smoked in the restricted area:     1st log 2nd log 3rd log Total Total 165 123 96 384 Restricted area 39 0 24 63 Number of:         Females 6 0 15 21 Males 33 0 9 42               As can be seen on the graph, the total number of smokers clearly outweighs the total number of female smokers, both on the designated and restricted areas. In the total, the male gender comprises 66.15% of the total smokers, and the female smokers amount to only 33.85% of the total number of smokers. On the other hand, about 33.33% are female on the smokers who smoke in restricted areas, whereas 66.67% males comprise the total number of smokers. Conclusion             Therefore, many factors can affect a person’s tendency to smoke, especially when restricted. These persons really need help, but there are other ways to help these people, especially if the government really wishes to help them. There is a counseling approach for emotion and cognition dependent smokers, broadly defined as that subset of smokers whose inability to stop smoking is determined by emotional and cognitive factors. Despite these people’s strong wish to stop smoking and multiple attempts to do so, their efforts are stymied by the emergence of distressful and painful feelings that they attempt to alleviate through smoking cigarettes. Severity, personal vulnerability, self-efficacy, and response efficacy enhance the persuasive effects of health warnings about smoking cessation by eliciting protection motivation, an intervening variable that arouses, sustains, and directs activity for self-protection within the individual. Strong beliefs about these variables can arouse protection motivation; consequently, these people will be more likely to change her attitudes and subsequently to stop smoking.  Recommendations Smoking Cessation Programs             Success in response to public health education is more likely in professional and managerial persons and in those best able to intelligently appreciate the risks associated with smoking. Unfortunately, most smokers do not usually stop smoking until the onset of ill health. Withdrawal effects, possibly related to nicotine deprivation, include depression, anxiety, irritability, insomnia, and weight gain. Hypnosis, aversion therapy, group therapy, and special smoking withdrawal clinics have helped individuals break their smoking habit, but the overall value of these aids is uncertain. Persons unable to stop cigarette smoking should be encouraged to change to a less dangerous method of smoking such as using pipes or cigars, or filter-tipped cigarettes with a low tar and nicotine content. The risk may be also reduced by smoking fewer cigarettes, inhaling less, leaving a longer stub, and taking fewer puffs/cigarettes (Pampel, 2005).             Motivated by health concerns, spurred on by social pressure, and aided by efficacious treatments, many smokers have managed to stop smoking. For a certain group of smokers, however, this outcome has been short-lived, as within months, weeks, or even days for some, a relapse to smoking occurs. Indeed, it has been documented that 1 year after a quit attempt, about 90% of would-be ex-smokers will have gone back to smoking (Covey & Seidman, 1999, p.175). Various organizations have put up campaigns against smoking. Yet not all of them do work. Governments alone cannot set up a successful campaign against smoking. Thus we see many private organizations that also help in campaigns against smoking.             Susan’s case is just one of the many cases about individuals who wish to stop smoking yet aren’t able to. Their need to smoke may be attributed to factors related to the self. Susan will probably need professional help regarding her smoking problem and an understanding of self is needed for a successful treatment.  Psychotherapeutic Approach             Because women’s lives are more punctuated, sociobiologically speaking, than are men’s — by menarche and menopause, by the monthly cycle of ovulation and bleeding, by pregnancy and childbirth, and by the accompanying assaults of these life changes on body image — looking at women as a block may blur differences in women’s smoking cessation needs across the life cycle. The special needs of women at different life stages will require much more attention if smoking cessation programs are to be maximally helpful to women smokers. Nevertheless, sufficient research has been done in a few aspects of the female life cycle to offer at least some guidance to the clinician (Covey & Seidman, 1999, p.74).             In Susan’s case, she would need a psychotherapeutic approach to her smoking problem. A psychotherapeutic approach for smoking cessation uses cognitive, supportive, and expressive therapeutic techniques that are generally delivered in an active, directive therapeutic style (Covey & Seidman, 1999, p.182). This approach will focus in an individual’s self-concept and views regarding smoking. Why people smoke and smokers’ views about smoking are issues that have attracted much attention within the last few years. Some researchers have focused on the role of peers and of parents. Other researchers have asked smokers to attribute their smoking to different reasons–for example, pleasure, relaxation, or weight control. These researchers have often been guided by attribution theory and, specifically, by the fundamental attribution error. When this theory has been applied to smokers, researchers have predicted that smokers would attribute their own smoking to external causes (e.g., peers, advertisements, pleasure), whereas nonsmokers would attribute people’s smoking to internal causes (Jenks, 1994). The therapy is change oriented, sequenced, and time limited.             The organizing principle of this therapeutic approach is the assumption that cigarette smoking is maintained by the (emotionally dependent) patient’s tendency to use cigarettes in the service of denying painful feelings. The consequence of this self-medicating tendency, which is sustained by the psychoactive nature of nicotine, is a learned and practiced inability to recognize feelings and to respond adaptively to the stressful, emotionally arousing events, large or small, of everyday life. The emotionally dependent smoker will often be emotionally unaware, constricted in emotional experience, and lacking in appropriate coping mechanisms (Covey & Seidman, 1999, p.180). Appendix   Questionnaires   1.) How old are you? (Please tick)   17-23 24-34 35-45 46-59 over 60               3) Please state your gender. (Please tick)  Male                        Female   4) What do they feel about the smoking ban now implemented in Hong Kong? (Please tick) Agree 1 Agree on some aspects 2 Undecided 3 Disagree on some aspects 4 Disagree 5               5) Please state the reason why you agree? (Please tick)   6)iately? (Please tick) NO 1 2 Sometimes 3 4 YES 5               7) How frequently do you smoke? (Please tick)   not at all 1 Once every other day 2 Once a day 3 5 times a day 4 regularly 5   Smoke               8.) Where do you often smoke?   Non-smoking areas 1 Designated smoking areas 2         Please state the reason for your answer: _______________________________ _________________________________________________________________     Interview Questions     1.      How often do you smoke? 2.      What are your reasons for smoking? 3.      Do you think that the smoking ban would actually lessen the smokers in Hong Kong? 4.      Why do smoke in a non-smoking area? 5.      What alternatives would you suggest for the implementation of the smoking     Field Logs on 22 February 2007 Duration:        1800 – 2400 hours Location:        (Please state the name of the designated park)   Time Event 1800 Arrived the vicinity of ‘name of the park’ 1830 – 1845 The first questionnaire was administered to a man in no-smoking area. 1850 – 1902 The 2nd questionnaire was conducted. (smoking area) 1906 – 1922 The 3rd questionnaire was conducted. (smoking area) 1926 – 1939 The 4th questionnaire was conducted. (smoking area) 1945 -1956 The 5th questionnaire was conducted. (non-smoking area) 2000 -2028 The 6th questionnaire was conducted. (smoking area) 2036 -2052 The 7th questionnaire was conducted. (non-smoking area) 2059 – 2116 The 8th questionnaire was conducted. (smoking area) 2133 – 2148 The 9th questionnaire was conducted. (smoking area) 2154 -2206 The 10th questionnaire was conducted. (smoking area) 2210 – 2229 The 11th questionnaire was conducted. (smoking area) 2245 – 2257 The 12th questionnaire was conducted. (smoking area) 2311 – 2324 The 13th questionnaire was conducted. (smoking area) 2326 – 2346 The 14th questionnaire was conducted. (non-smoking area) 2347 – 2403 The 15th questionnaire was conducted. (non-smoking area) 2405 Left ‘name of the designated park’.               On the first designated night in conducting my field research, I chose (please insert the name of the designated park) to conduct my survey. In the course of my 6 hour operation, I have succeeded only in asking 15 smokers to answer my questionnaire and only a further 3 for the interview. But as I counted the smokers in the course of the 6 hours that I spent there, the total number of smokers totaled to about 165; 39 people smoking in the non-smoking area and about 126 in the smoking area. About 93 people were male and the remaining 72 were female. Though the above summary does not display the gender of the respondents, most of the respondents were male, only 4 were female.             As I was able to observe, female smokers often came in cliques, comprising of mostly female, sometimes with a few male companions. On the other hand, male smokers either came alone or in a pair, mostly a male companion. The result of the survey in my survey sheet as of the moment can be deemed indecisive, for only four respondents came from the non-smoking area, where as in actuality, there were around 39 people smoking in the non-smoking area in the course of the 6 hour operation, 6 of them female.  This is due to the fact that many of the smokers form the non-smoking area refused to answer the questionnaire or be interviewed, for fear of being caught by officers and be condemned with the use of that information. In actuality, many of them put out their cigarette and left the area when I approached them about the survey.              The area I chose seems to be quite popular with smokers since it is quite near to offices and bus stops. Though it is too early to conclude, I believe that this may be one of the factors why many people come here to smoke. Interview Analysis             For the interview, only 2 people were willing to give out their opinions on the matter of smoking. Almost all the answers from the two were unanimous, except for question one. The two people were interviewed with an interval of 4 hours and 30 minutes. The first smoker, who was interviewed at around 7:56 PM, stated that he smoked around 5 times a day. According to him, he smokes because he has a tendency to binge what he eats, so in order to stop that from happening, he lights a cigarette to stop the feeling of nausea after eating. For interviewee no. 2, who was interviewed at around 11:46 PM, stated that he smokes around 2 to 3 times a day, depending on his mood. He smokes mainly because he likes the feel of the cigarette in his mouth. For interviewee no. 1, the ban in Hong Kong is practically useless, since many people still smoke, and the areas designated for smoking does not contain the smoke coming from their cigarettes; for interviewee no. 2, the ban should be on the cigarettes, not the people who smoke. For both interviewee no. 1 and 2, they smoke in the non-smoking area simply because the smoking area is too crowded. According to interviewee no. 2, he likes to smoke alone, that’s why even if it’s a restricted area, he chooses to go there instead of the crowded smoking area. Both interviewees suggested that the government lift the ban on smoking. According to them, smoking can only be stopped if the smoker decides to stop, so even if there is a constant ban on smoking, smokers would continue to smoke and break the ban.             Though the first survey results does not give me hard evidence and answers, mere observation gives me a feel of why people smoke at non-designated areas.                           Field Logs on 22 March 2007   Duration:        1800 – 2400 hours Location:        (please state the name of the park)   Time Event 1802 Arrived at the vicinity of ‘name of the park’. 1815 – 1822 The 1st questionnaire was conducted. (smoking area) 1826 – 1839 The 2nd questionnaire was conducted. (smoking area) 1845 The 3rd. to the 6th questionnaires were handed out and completed.  (smoking area) ~ ~ (smoking area) ~ ~ (smoking area) ~ ~ (smoking area) ~ ~ (smoking area) 1903 The 3rd. to the 6th questionnaires were handed out and completed. (smoking area) 1909 – 1926 The 7th questionnaire was conducted. (smoking area) 1949 – 2003 The 8th questionnaire was conducted. (smoking area) 2004 – 2023 The 9th questionnaire was conducted. (smoking area) 2026 – 2044 The 10th questionnaire was conducted. (smoking area) 2048 – 2059 The 11th questionnaire was conducted. (smoking area) 2100 – 2116 The 12th questionnaire was conducted. (smoking area) 2120 – 2138 The 13th questionnaire was conducted. (smoking area) 2140 – 2200 The 14th questionnaire was conducted. (smoking area) 2210 – 2231 The 15th questionnaire was conducted. (smoking area) 2249 – 2306 The 16th questionnaire was conducted. (smoking area) 2310 – 2327 The 17th questionnaire was conducted. (smoking area) 2329 – 2341 The 19th questionnaire was conducted. (smoking area) 2345 – 2401 The 20th questionnaire was conducted. (smoking area) 2405 Left the designated area.                           At my second night of operations, I chose a park that is quite secluded and relatively far from any office establishment in order for me to determine if people would really come to such a place just to be able to smoke. The park is relatively 2 blocks from any office establishment. The total number of smokers was about 123, 36 were female and 87 were male. Out of about 123 smokers that I was able to note during my 6 hour survey, only 20 people were willing to answer the questionnaire, 5 were female, and all of whom were smoking in the designated area. As is reflected in the results, all complied with the ban, no one smoked in the non-smoking area. One may conclude that the reason why no one is smoking in the non-smoking area is because the park is quite far from any establishments. And probably, all those who came there during my survey were willing to follow the rules.             Since none of them were smoking in the non-smoking area, I decided not to conduct any interviews.             But it is also interesting to note that after I had conducted my interviews, I decided to see the nearest establishments for any smokers there. Just as I had speculated, many were smoking at the closest establishments; on backstreets, on dark alleys and corners.   Field Log on 22 April 2007 Duration:        1800 – 2400 hours Location:        Please fill in with the designated area   Time Event 1800 Please fill in the name designated area. 1810 – 1825 The 1st and 2nd questionnaires were given and completed. 1830 – 1845 The 3rd and 4th questionnaires were given and completed. 1850 – 1905 The 5th and the 6th questionnaires were given and completed. 1910 – 1925 The 7th and the 8th questionnaires were given and completed. 1930 – 1945 The 9th and the 10th questionnaires were given and completed. 1950 – 2005 The 11th and the 12th questionnaires were given and completed. 2010 – 2025 The 13th and the 14th questionnaires were given and completed. 2030 – 2045 The 15th and the 16th questionnaires were given and completed. 2050 – 2105 The 17th and the 18th questionnaires were given and completed. 2110 – 2125 The 19th and the 20th questionnaires were given and completed. 2130 – 2145 The 21st and the 22nd questionnaires were given and completed. 2150 – 2205 The 23rd and the 24th questionnaires were given and completed. 2210 – 2225 The 25th and the 26th questionnaires were given and completed. 2230 – 2245 The 27th and the 28th questionnaires were given and completed. 2250 – 2305 The 29th and the 30th questionnaires were given and completed. 2310 – 2325 The 31st and the 32nd questionnaires were given and completed. 2330 – 2345 The 33rd and 34th questionnaires were given and completed. 2350 – 2405 The 35th and the 36th questionnaires were given and completed. 2410 Left the venue.               This is my third and final survey night at the designated parks. In order to gain more respondents, I decided to change my strategy and my time table. I gave out to questionnaires to every 15 minutes and with 5 minute intervals. Therefore, in my 6 hour operation, I was able to have 36 respondents. I made sure that I would be able to interview a number of respondents from the non-smoking area, so about 23 of these respondents are smokers from non-smoking areas. About 96 smokers came on my 6 hour observation, about 22 were female and 74 were male.             Again, I was able to observe many smokers coming to the non-smoking area. About at least 25% of the total number of smokers was in the restricted area, and of these smokers, around 15 were female.             I was also able to interview around 16 of the 23 respondents coming from the said area. Credit:ivythesis.typepad.com

Factors that Affect’s a Person’s Tendency of Smoking in Nonsmoking Areas

Introduction Smoking continues to be a problem among many individuals worldwide. An attempt to decrease availability to those...