Research Topics: Brunei Case Studies

WORLD FOOD: AN ANALYSIS OF IMMINENT ISSUES ON THE WORLD’S FOOD SUPPLY

WORLD FOOD: AN ANALYSIS OF IMMINENT ISSUES ON THE WORLD’S FOOD SUPPLY I.             Introduction   There are millions of individuals living in the world to date. Along with the problem of space, the task of feeding this multitude is also one of the greatest problems that world leaders are facing today. Questions as to whether the supply of food is directly proportional to the number of the public or as to whether the countries are able to produce a sufficient supply of food for their population lingers in the minds of governments and even international organizations. This study intends to describe the current situation of the world’s food security and establish certain suggestions that would be able to amend the growing problem of food shortages. For clarity and coherence of the discussions, the paper is to be divided into three parts. The first part of the paper will establish the current state of food security in areas all over the world. A general description of North America, Latin America, Europe, Africa and Asia will be provided. The second part will be discussing the possible causes of issues on food security. Issues of urban sprawl and the supply and demand of food stuff are to be discussed in this portion of the paper. Moreover, the consequent effects such as undernutrition are going to be analyzed along with the attempts of states and governments to rectify this situation through certain policies. The third part is going to take into consideration the technological attempts to resolve the issues on food supply. Specifically, the issues on genetically modified organisms will be tackled in this part. At the end of these discussions, a summation and conclusion will be provided based on the prior arguments held in the paper. With this conclusion, a set of recommendation will be formulated regarding the views of the researcher on how to rectify these issues on food security.           II.           The World’s Food Security   Issues on food security have been discussed publicly through academic and scholarly literature. The succeeding part will be taking into consideration the general description of certain areas of the globe and eventually discuss the food problem that prevails over the said countries. In a sense, the discussions below shall establish that food problems do exist in a global scale.   A.  The North American Experience   North America is composed of Canada and the United States. The geographical attributes of North America has been characterized as distinctive particularly in its regional environments. It possesses considerable geographical features such as the periglacial environment, the boreal forests, the Great Lakes, deserts, sea coasts, and the borderlands within the continent. , 2004) Though it has apparently presented as a well-preserved environment, the North American landscape wasn’t safe from the effects of human interventione (2000) presented this in his discussions on the effects of agriculture and urbanization in the geography of North America.   In a studyr (2004, 340) they noted that one of the basic problems that developed countries like those in the North American region experience is overconsumption. An artic (1991) indicated that the major problem of overconsumption is triggered by the compulsion of the American population to consume. The presence of too much commodities and equally proportioned capacity to purchase these commodities set off this compulsion. Other elements like advertising, the culture of shopping, government policies, and weak household and community economies also activate this consumption trends in the North American regionng, 1991)  Results like obesity and other health problems have also emerged as overconsumption took place.       B.  The Latin American Experience   Latin America is composed of Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Chile, Columbia, Costa Rica, Ecuador, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, Mexico, Nicaragua, Panama, Paraguay, Peru, Uruguay, and Venezuelaal, 2001) It is characterized predominantly varies in climate from tropical, subtropical, and sub-Antarctic. However, majority of the landscapes in this area are fashioned to cater to common field agriculturer, 2002, 37) It could thus be assumed that cropping and grazing are among the major livelihood in this region. According to the work on (2000) economic development in the Latin American region reveals its rather volatile nature. The performance of the countries on the said region apparently has been erratic from the past decades. And in the eventful decade of the 1980s, the region has placed its ranking among the third world countries in the current period. , 2000)   Given the description above, it appears that most of the countries in the Latin American region are classified as developing countries. One problem in the context of food security in this region is the tendency of such countries to have an urban bias such that they tend to prioritize industrial factors more over agricultural sustenance. This is manifested in the case of Argentina in 1940 to 1.r, 2004, 352) Being in a region where the soil is rich and the climate is conducive for agriculture, Argentina apparently suffered major problems in food security. This was triggered by the policy of employing high taxes on agricultural exports. Some of the consequences were the decline in agriculture employment, slow productivity in the agricultural sector, and losing resources to industrial sector given its preference over the agricultural sector. Essentially, this made the agricultural production of the country at an all time low, in fact even lower during World War II.            C.  Issues in Europe   This region encompasses thirty-nine countriesal, 2001) It is connected by the huge Alpine mountain chain including the Pyrenees, the Alps, the Carpathians, the Balkans, and the Caucasus. Along with this mountainous terrain is the European plain that stretches from France to the Urals. It is a highly industrialized region along with a highly developed transportation system. , 2001) Inland water transportation is also made possible by interconnected river ways and canals. With its great ports, the said region relies heavily on foreign trading.   Being the embodiment of advanced civilization, Europe has been the central entity that has been looked up to by developing countries. n, 2004, 172) However, having this prestigious image also entails several connotations. One that comes to mind is that the said region is able to make use of advanced technology for an earlier period of time as compared to other developing countries. This means that the mortality rate in the European region has decreased much earlier as compared to regions with developing countries., 2004, 136) To illustrater (2004) made a comparison on Sweden and Mexico, with the former representing developed countries and the latter representing developing ones. They indicated that the death rate in the European country significantly lessened in the early parts of the 1800, over a century before the decline in Mexico ever took place. This means that European countries had more mouths to feed as compared to their North American counterparts. This shows that in European countries, an issue of food security rests not on the number of people but the availability of food. The proportion between food supply and the number of population is significantly skewed against the entry on food thus establishing the recurring problem of food security.   D.  Africa and its Surrounding Countries   There are over forty countries that are under the Sub-Saharan region of Africa. Majority of the nations here are landlocked territories characterized by arid to semi-arid climate. , 2001) Given the said description, it is not surprising that there are limited number of arable land and fresh water sources. International organizations have constantly urged Sub-Saharan region to open up its market. However, the Sub-Saharan African market has constantly been open since the 16th century. ( 2003, 389) It has been characterized as a marginal player in international trade. It is similarly accountable for 2% of the entire import exports in the international setting.r, 2003, 389) In a 1995 data, the population of Sub-Saharan Africa tipped over five hundred million. Of this number, over two hundred million were said to be under the poverty line. (, 2002, 10) To add to this predicament is the pandemic brought about by HIV and AIDS. By the end of 1999, over 22 million of the population is infected. (2002, 12)   One of the most affected areas with regards to the food problem, Africa’s growing population is among the more major reasons for their food issues. Accordingr (2004, 136), the population of Africa grows at a rate of 2.35% annually as seen in the statistics during 1995 to 2000. This means that with the seemingly dearth supply of food in the said region, the issue on allocation is also an issue considering the enormous number of mouths to feed. Another issue in the said country is the low-income growth. (p168) Specifically, countries in Sub-Saharan Africa indicate a negative growth in the annual growth rate of per capita income from 1975-2000.r (2004) added that the region’s yields in wheat, rice and maize in 1961-2001 were the lowest in growth as compared to the other areas of the world. Added to this predicament is the constant drought that has been occurring because of the climate of the region. To illustrate, countries like Zimbabwe (p73) have constantly suffered and even succumbed to the perils of drought. Such effects of drought include massive food shortages and even famine if the state does not impose the appropriate policies to deal with the said problem. This problem is so prevalent in the said region that countries like Malawi and Zambia even have what they coined as hungry seasons. (p82)   E.  Asian Problems   In Central Asia, Majority of the countries are landlocked with rugged mountain terrains and plains in Afghanistan and deserts in some parts of China.l, 2001). South Asia on the other hand, is isolated from the rest of Asia by mountain ranges surrounding the countries. Moreover, though some of the countries are landlocked, some parts of the religion are separated by the sea. Countries like Japan and Taiwan are detached from the regional, 2001) This region is one of the most illustrious in Asia in terms of its industrial sector. With major trading partners present in the United States, Germany, and Singapore, the imports and export industries are among the primary source of income for the countries.al, 2001) With 10 countries characterized as developing nations, with the exception of Brunei, Southeast Asia is largely composed of archipelagoes. The region is thus separated by huge masses of water of the Pacific Oceanal, 2001) This means that these countries are susceptible to constant storms and typhoons. Moreover, they are near the Pacific Belt of Fire which makes earthquakes frequent to the region. However, Countries like Laos and Vietnam have almost half of their population below the poverty lineal, (2001) However, other countries are still marred by chronic unemployment and high population rates.   In the case of Asia, the region is well endowed with arable lands and even a better climate for agriculture. In fact, most of the countries in the said region are more dependent on agriculture decades before the concept of modern globalization has been introduced. In the said region, given the resources for sustaining food security is available, countries are still not safe from the perils of famine and food shortages. To illustrate, China and North Korea recently succumbed to one of the worst famines that the world has ever seen in known history.r, 2004, 15, 18) Based on what the authors discussed, the cause of famine is basically triggered by the leadership of the said countries. Poor policies as well as really radical attempts for change have triggered over thirty million individuals dying in China. (p17) In the case of the North Korean famine, the political affiliations of the said country have been the major indicator on the rise of the problem. When the disintegration of the Soviet Union took place, the North Korean ties with the said superpower similarly went down the drain. With North Korea making weapons and ballistics merchandise as well as fertilizer for the former Soviet Union, agricultural lands were not sufficient, when the USSR called it quits.   r (2004) even indicated that the policies on agriculture similarly took a toll on the famine that took place in North Korea. Specifically, the laws imposed on farmers prompted them to hide considerable amounts of crops to themselves. They use these stashed away crops for personal consumption or they peddle it on their own for their own profit. This means that the laws imposed on the said farmers are so strict that they have to resort to stealing from their own harvest just to have food on their plates.     III.         Geography and Food Shortage   In this current day and age, the concept of development has spawned several models and theories from academics and scholars alike. However, the determinant of development ceases to be solely measured by the economic performance of a state. The living conditions and the standard of living of every individual and families alike are seen as similar indicators of development. Countries have long been in pursuit of economic development. Take for example a study made in Taiwan revealed that data showing economic growth; population and employment growth rates; consumer prices; economic structures of agriculture, industry, service; and foreign trade were among the information used to measure economic development.  2000, 1723) However, not all states have the capacity to balance out these elements. In some instances, the situation and consequent demands of globalization and competition becomes too intense that it overwhelms the stang (1999, 103) claimed that a true type of development are hugely affected by the policies that government make and consequently implement. On this part of the paper, the possible causes of the problems of food security are going to be tackled: urban sprawl and inequality in the supply and demand of food. Moreover, the resulting issues of malnutrition and the policies that deals with the situation       A.  The Issue of Urban Sprawl   The movement of people from the rural to the urban parts of the state has been a lingering occurrence in nations. This movement of internal migration among the population has triggered a considerable effect not only on space but also in the supply of food. The initial problem of space basically triggers the main predicament of food security in a specific state. Given that space is required among cities as the population boost brought about by the rural-urban migration, there is the tendency for these urban areas to expand its borders towards the rural areas. This condition denotes what is considered as urban sprawl. ( 2001, 15) If this condition is not controlled through policies of the state, then the growth of the urban areas will eventually eat out the areas in the rural lands that are reserved for agricultural purposes.   However, this condition of urban sprawl is triggered by a similar occurrence especially in developing countries. r (2004, 359) indicated in their work that the emergence of an ideology of urban bias may have induced the internal migration and triggered the weakening of the agricultural sector. They noted that this partiality towards the urban areas, especially in the developing countries, is triggered by policies that raises the price of industrial products and lowers the price of agricultural products. This means that these policies are made to encourage activities from the industrial sector. With a subsequent surge in the verve of the industrial sector, states become more appealing to investors in building up factories and plants so as to expand their business. This concentration of these resources in the urban areas not only triggers urban sprawl but also stunts the development of the state’s agricultural sector.   The problem is that in developing countries, the effectiveness of this course of action is probably outweighed by its costs. In countries with urban bias, Disproportionate levy of agricultural products and the allotment of spending supportive of urban districts are instruments employed by states to realize this purpose. Therefore, agriculture-motivated growth over industry and restructuring the provision of social services are all updated by the principle that the state’s urban sector has drawn off resources clear of rural regions and at the same time falling short of rousing general development. Even though rural areas, agricultural lands especially, undergone grave desertion under development policies made by the state, proof from certain states has revealed that poverty is not merely a rural predicament; without a doubt, urban poverty has been growing swiftly. This means that the bias and the subsequent sprawl essentially trigger the spread of poverty among the urban dwellers. Moreover, poverty has transferred from rural to urban districts and that this progression of urbanizing poverty came before the beginning of aid programs coming from international organizations.     B.  Supply and Demand of Food   One other predicament that the world is now experiencing is the issue of the demand and supply of food. Malthus contended that since populations is continuously growing in epic proportions and food resources does not develop in the same exponential fashion, that there would be reduced returns in salaries and living standards among people. He added that the influence of population is indefinitely superior to the capability in the earth to bring into being subsistence for humankind ( 2004, 129). And based on the current situation of the world’s food security and food supply, mankind has greatly exceeded the Malthus prophecy. Though it is undoubtedly possible that the planet is capable of housing as much people as it could, there is a considerable drawback when survival comes into play. Population densities influence the quantity of food that is needed by a person. In the same way this population could as well make limitations on the access of such resources for every person. ( 2005, 78) This is especially true for developing countries and less developed countries where issues on self-sufficiency are present. It is these countries’ economies that could not sustain their own food production to compensate for their own subsistence levels. (2004, 339)   The connection involving population and the available amount of food is one of the more pressing issues today. Especially on account of the more underprivileged countries whose economy are not able to resort to importation to solve this supply issue on food. Food security is thus similarly has its economic personality. Assuming that there are indeed enough food products that could feed the world, it still does not eradicate the issue of accessibility of these products. It is turning out to be increasingly understandable that the predicament originates not as much from a crisis with the density of the individuals in the context of space. The problem rests on the density of populations in the context of food access.     In this sense, the access of food in the context of developing and less developed countries is the basic problem that concerns the world food problem. In the workster (2004) indicated that the number of undernourished individuals have reduced in number from 906 million in the 1980s to 800 million in the later part of the 1990s. However, there is still the issue that the present pattern of undernutrition and food shortage is disparate to food accessibility, but is in its place a utility of global entitlements to food. Domestic deficits on food are not triggered by physical deficiencies. Availability of food is the same with the access to food. This means that it is not just collective food supply but in the same way its allocation that establishes the occurrence of hunger and undernutrition in any part of the globe. As Leathers and Foster (2004, 9) indicated the occurrence of severe food shortages in certain states are basically brought about by poor policy response from the government. Thus, the government’s awareness on the imminent occurrence of such shortages and knowing the appropriate courses of action are the key to solving the problem on food.   C.  International Undernutrition   In an alarming turn of events, the crisis in the food supply and access to food supply brought about one major implication to the modern world. It triggered the prevalence of undernutrition, a health problem set off by insufficient sustenance and even starvation. One sad thing about this problem is that majority of those suffering are in the younger generations. Children often are the casualties with illnesses as diarrhea, measles and pneumonia, all of which are related to the individual’s undernutrition. a, 2004, 802) And according to the said study of Potera (2004) most of those undernourished who suffer from these illnesses more often than not are subject to the possibility of death. This is supported by the Leathers and Foster (2004, 64) indicating that intestinal disorders, diarrhea, pneumonia, influenza, bronchitis, whooping cough and measles as among the major illnesses that causes child mortality. All of the said illnesses are associated with undernutrition. Unfortunately, most of these high rates of child mortality are present in developing countries.   In the work ofr (2004, 63) there are several implications of undernutrition. One of these implications is that undernourished mothers give birth to undernourished children. This presents the newly born child to the possibly of death within its first year. More likely these babies are born underweight. As the study oer (2004, 63) claimed, most of these underweight babies are forty times more likely to succumb to death as compared to babies born within the acceptable weight.   This shows that the most striking implication of undernutrition is unmistakably death. What is more arresting is that majority of the deaths are often placed as a notch in child mortality raster, 2004, 64) However, the remaining percentage of those who have survived their earlier years being undernourished, there are more hurdles that they are to encounter in their later years. As stated in the work or (2004, 67) undernourished children are faced with the likelihood of reduced intellectual capacity and cognitive functioning. This shows that the mental development of the child also suffers when he/she is undernourished. One possible effect of this is iodine deficiency among children. (p69) It has been known that children suffering from lack of sufficient iodine have an intellectual quotient that is 13.5 point lesser than normal children.   All in all, the access to nutrition and food supply seems to have a considerable effect on the consequent lives of the child. Undernutrition, in essence, gives the child a disadvantage even before he/she learns to walk. A child’s health may well indicate as to whether the child will be able to learn to write or read in time, meaning keep up with the normal child. Unless these individuals are given help by a being much larger than they are, then all their endeavors are likely to fail. The succeeding discussions are going to present some of the policies that states have ratified to deal with this major problem of undernutrition.     D.  Policies Ratified to Deal with these Issues     As stated in the earlier parts of the paper, policies of the government do great contribution to solving the food problem in individual states. One such measure is reflected in the policies regarding agriculture productivity. In such an area, the land reform programs of countries often come to mind. According to Leathers and Foster (2004, 292) this land reform programs are essentially characterized by the redistribution of land basically for purposes of agriculture. The said authors noted several instances where land is redistributed as farmlands. One such instance is the distribution of the US military government of lands in Japan right after the Second World War. This served as the first steps in reconstructing the Japanese agriculture in the post-war period. Another instance is reflected in the distribution of land in Algeria in 1962. The act nationalized the lands which were owned predominantly by French colonists and eventually redistributed into small parts to numerous farmers in the said country. All in all, the move towards land reform among countries is basically to meet a requirement of wealth redistribution and to increase the productivity of agricultural lands within the territory. (p295)      Another policy that has been implemented by numerous states is regarding consumption. In the study of Leather and Foster (2004, 340) there are two kinds of consumption that triggers the food problem of the world: overconsumption and underconsumption. In the case of overconsumption, it is normally prevalent in developed countries. In countries like the United States, their average daily calories consumption is considerably higher than their counterparts in the rest of the globe. Leather and Foster (2004, 340) claimed that solving such problem as food problem caused by overconsumption is to induce levies and taxes on food produces. Even though they claim that it would be impossible in practical and political terms, imposing such duties on food items will actually reduce a state’s overconsumption. On the other hand, the case of underconsumption relates to the situation in developing countries. This case is more related to the context of undernutrition, however the issue of overconsumption in developed countries is also closely related to the rectifying the issue of underconsumption in developing countries. Leathers and Foster (2004, 340) coined this policy solution for underconsumption and overconsumption as the “redistribution solution.” This is basically the attempt of developed countries to help developing counties to gain access to food products through the export of goods. It serves as an aid to these developing countries because these goods are priced in such a way that countries could considerably afford the cost of buying such food products. As stated in the earlier parts of the study, one of the key to remedying the problem of food shortage is basically to give access to these products. However, this also entails certain actions from the developing countries and a strong political will so as to create policies that will result to controlling, if not the eradication of the food problem.          Population growth is also considered one of the major causes of food shortage. Leathers and Foster (2004, 393) noted some of the possible policies that could deal with this problem. One course of action is to reduce the rate of population growth. China took this policy to the extreme when it imposed a one-child policy per couple. (Mills and Nagel, 1993, xiii) This policy was taken as a means to combat the strain on the resources of China as much as a mechanism for population control. On the whole the consumers of China’s resources are significantly reduced because of this policy. Another policy that deals with population growth and the available resources is to invest in improved agricultural productivity. In the case of Russia, the policies ratified by the state have been implemented such that the crop yield of the country was able to considerably at par with the global scene. (Arnade and Trueblood, 2001, 59) A third policy option is to protect the soil and water resources of the state. In England and Wales, the system of irrigation and management of the water systems are now covered by the geographic information system (GIS) technologies. (Knox and Weatherfield, 1999, 90) This technology allows the government and its relevant authorities to monitor the flow and use of such resources. Moreover, Leathers and Foster (2004, 393) added that all these policies should also be complementary with the state’s economy such that it encourages economic growth in general.        IV.        Technology’s Response to the Problem   In the past years, technological advances have made the lives of men and women considerably easier and non-complex as compared to centuries before. The introduction of computerized and automated machines in the forefront of business and commerce have been very influential in maintaining the efficiency of people. Subsequent innovations such as the miniaturization of formerly bulky technology as well as the immediacy in terms of communication process have allowed the principles of globalization making trading easier as compared to how early merchants tread the seas for commerce. In the case of food safety, the emergence of new technology has been the advancing the causes of agriculture. To illustrate, the United States have undergone technological and social-economic structural change in the agriculture sector for several years already. (Huffman, 1998, 159) As a result, farmers benefit from the scientific breakthroughs to which agriculture is subjected. Greater yield in terms of agricultural production and a decrease in lost profit because of crop problems such as pests, vermin, and other sickness in food crops are among the results of these advancements. This part of the study is going to discuss the possible implications of science and technology on responding to the food problem that the world is experiencing. Basically, the discussions will be surrounding the issue of genetically modified organisms in the development of agriculture. A general description on the GMO technology would be initially provided and subsequent arguments in favor and against the said technology will ensue.                A.  Genetically Modified Organisms (GMO)   The concept of genetically modified organisms are often used for crops that are customized or altered to be fit for the consumption of human and animals. Specifically, the alteration process goes through the most modern type of systems using molecular biological systems. In this process, a foreign gene is added to the genome of the organism. In this manner, the said genome will eventually carry the traits of the gene inserted to it. On a more precise description, the DNA of one organism is transferred to another through physically altering it by means of genetic engineering. With the issue of breeding taken away from the equation, the barrier presented by the sexuality of the species is prevailed over by the process. (Leathers and Foster, 2004, 240) This means that the margin for error in infusing such genes to specific genomes is significantly reduced as compared to the traditional cross-breeding practices done decades ago in bioresearch.      The modern methods make actual engineering to be possible for scientists. Specifically, the infusion of a boost in resistance to herbicides, greater nutritional substance, or any other desired characteristics that scientists want to add is possible. More so with this genome process, precision is of utmost advantage given to the scientists. Along with the advances in modern technology, this could thus be easily done in laboratories.   This technology is not held back by the restrictions of traditional breeding food crops. In this technology, as much as genes can be removed from one crop to another, genes coming from non-plant life forms can similarly be employed. The commonly held illustration of this is the employment of Bt genes in corn and other food crops. This Bacillus thuringiensis creates crystal proteins that are deadly to insects as well as the larvae of these insects (Leathers and Foster, 2004, 241) These proteins have been shifted into corn and cotton such that these plants can generate their own form of insect repellents. With this manipulation of the genetic construct of crops, resistance from pests and disease as well as the ability to stand herbicide, drought and salinity are provided.   The problem in this context is that not everyone is pleased with these GMO technologies. To illustrate, the European Union imposed a ban on the imports of GM products and even its use in their territory. (Leathers and Foster, 2004, 242) It even came to the point where the World Trade Organization has to intervene in the matter considering that the trading between countries has been hampered by this ban on GM products.   B.  GMO’s Infusion with Agriculture   As stated in the earlier parts of this paper, the United States is among the forerunners in advancements in technology specifically in agriculture. Research on genetically modified technology is perceived to be generally the answer to the world food problem, well to a certain degree. However, the said claim has been under considerable scrutiny by the media and scientific community. To illustrate, an editorial in Washington Times (2003) entitled “Much Ado about GM Foods” was published pertaining to the lobbying of the political entities in the US on the advancement of genetically modified technology in agriculture. Seeing the editorial, it appears that it claims an idea to address the problem of food scarcity all over the world. The said editorial presented a study of the NCFAP with regards to modified foods like the fungus resistant potato. The use of such product would be able to boost the production of potato immensely as compared to the current state. Moreover, this will be able to give potato farmers a less cost in maintaining their crops. This is considering the fact that they would use fewer insecticides and other agricultural products to ensure the proper growth of the crops. In such a manner, not only does this kind of crop assist the agricultural industry, it also addresses the apparent shortage in agricultural products domestically and in the international context.   On a closer look, the discussion is regarding the use of genetically modified food crops to address the leading problem of the United States regarding the ban imposed by the European Union on the said crops. The study predominantly cited a study by a government agency, the National Center for Food and Agricultural Policy (NCFAP), stating GM food’s benefit on major areas like Europe. The editorial stated that the use of “genetically modified insect-resistant maize, herbicide-tolerant sugar beet and fungus-resistant potato” would be able to increase the annual yields of European farmers by billions of kilograms. (Washington Times, 2003) However, the editorial never really took into account the possible downside of such use to the environment. One is the possible biochemical instability that may take place once a new genetic material is introduced into the environment. Unanticipated interaction may take place considering the lack of precedence in using such materials.   C.  Issues on GMO   Through the attempt to solve the problem of food supply, man has continuously risen to the occasion by using its endeavors as a force in resolving this issue. (DeGregori, 2002, 134) However, such endeavors are expected not to please everyone. This is the case in GMOs. There are several issues on the use of such technology to resolve the food issue of the world. The preceding discussions will present the claims or (2004, 243) regarding the main issues on GMOs: human health issues and environmental issues.     1.    Human health concern   There are three usual issues against GMOs on human health: allergies, weakened immune system, and promotion of evolution of diseases. (Leathers and Foster, 2004, 244) The first reason was triggered by a highly publicized recall program of a brand of tortilla chips that used a kind of GM maize unauthorized for human consumption. According to what has been reported, the said product is only approved for animal consumption. An offshoot of the sensationalized report was the complaint of several individuals claiming to have acquired allergic reactions from eating the said product.   Another issue that has risen regarding the health implications is a result of a research in UK indicating that this technology could compromise the body’s immune system. (Leathers and Foster, 2004, 244) The research indicated that a laboratory experiment on rats fed with GM produce. Nevertheless, the said experiment was then criticized by the Royal Society for the lack of any effective experiment design. This means that the experiment may be flawed or even outright biased against the use of GM produce. A similar study was made in Japan which indicated that no implications on the immune system were found, thus negating the initially criticized study.   The third issue on human health is regarding the possibility of accidentally creating a disease that is immune to the current antibiotics used by man. The use of biotechnology and alterations on food crops with genetic engineering could trigger a contagion of evolved illnesses when virus carrying insects. (Leathers and Foster, 2004, 244) This thus presents a situation wherein the answer for the food problem and eventual solution for survival may well be the one that triggers the annihilation of the species with the introduction of new illnesses. This may well be a reality with the natural immune system lagging behind the rather high rate of advancement in technology.      2.    Environmental Concern   Aside from the supposed implications of GMOs on the human body, the said products may similarly have a considerable effect on the environment in general. According to Leathers and Foster (2004, 245), three environmental issues exist: the implications to other organisms not targeted by the natural insecticides, creation of “superweeds”, and disruption of the ecological balance. The first issue is basically an argument against the use of Bt gene injected in food crops. As stated earlier, the said gene introduces a new attribute to the food crop: a natural insecticide. Initially, the said insecticide targets specific insects that have been noted to be dangerous to food crops. Nevertheless, Leathers and Fosters (2004, 245) claimed that other insects that are not targeted by the Bt gene may well be affected. This means that insects that may have been not a threat to food crops may succumb to the natural insecticides of the GM crops.   Another issue on this matter is the possible creation of superweeds. Again a criticism against GM crops, the natural occurring defense mechanisms that the added gene in the plant may produce an effect other than kill the weeds that compete with the soil’s nutrients. It could also trigger an evolutionary change for these weeds. Leathers and Foster (2004, 245) claimed that weeds could similarly create a naturally occurring defense mechanism, a sort of resistance to the natural herbicides of GM crops. This thus creates a much powerful species of weed that would continuously compete with the plant for the earth’s nutrients.   The third concern on GM food crops is the possibility of ecological ima  (2004, 245) indicated that when this become a reality, the diversity of species may wear away. The said possibility is discussed using the issues of herbicide and the subsequent implications on the environment surrounding it. From the evolution of weeds and the possible effects on the fauna feeding off on these, changes in the genetic construct of food crops has apparently given critics a scare. Though the hypothetical situations indicated in the discussions or (2004) appear to be the worst-case scenario, the possibility of these situations to take place is supported citing by previous studies that point to the implications of GM crops.                 V.          Conclusion   This study has given an in-depth discussion on the world problems and the issues surrounding its existence. The first part of the paper revealed that there is indeed a problem in world food. However, it does similarly show that shortage is not the specific problem. It is the distribution of food across countries that have triggered a more pressing problem. The second part on the other hand has established that certain elements in society do contribute and even aggravate the problem in world food. Policies and international frameworks and courses of action have been indicated with the intention of solving this problem. It is the discussion of the technological advancements and its application on agriculture presents the most promise among the noted solutions above. Numerous antagonists of GM crops contend that the technology is not required to lend a hand in resolving the trouble in world food, with millions of individuals who do not have an adequate amount of food to consume. They repeatedly contend that the world generates adequate food to nourish billions of individuals, meaning that the problem of world food is basically an issue of allocation and nor food output. Regrettably, fitting the allocation setback is a multifaceted subject. The purchasing power would require boosting in developing countries, in addition to better food creation in developing and developed nations alike such that food crops can be sold at a value the needy can manage to pay. Given that agricultural land is inadequate, the remaining alternative for growing crop output is to boost yield. Whereas GM food crop technology is not the solitary process that can be employed to pull off this general objective, it can greatly play a part on this issue.   VI.        Recommendations   Based on the conclusion above, the following courses of action are recommended by the paper:   ·         Individual states should essentially ratify policies that would sustain the performance of their agricultural sector.   ·         Developed countries should take the lead in research and development to even out the edges of GM crop technology.   ·         International organizations such as the WTO should impose fewer barriers for developing countries such that they could afford to import crops.   ·         State governments should be constantly aware and heedful of the needs of their country’s food security by imposing flexible policies on such areas.    Credit:ivythesis.typepad.com

WORLD FOOD: AN ANALYSIS OF IMMINENT ISSUES ON THE WORLD’S FOOD SUPPLY

WORLD FOOD: AN ANALYSIS OF IMMINENT ISSUES ON THE WORLD’S FOOD SUPPLY I. Introduction There are millions of individua...

Research Proposal on Brunei’s 21st Century Education

SECONDARY SCIENCE EDUCATION   “Implication of science education in Brunei 21st Century Education system”   One of philosophical debates in education literature focuses on inclusion of multicultural science in science education, multicultural science is seen as important because it can function as pedagogical stepping stone especially for multicultural students of science (Atwater and Riley, 1993; Hodson, 1993; Stanley and Brickhouse, 1994). Ogawa (1995) stresses that “science students must work through both individual and indigenous science understandings in the course of constructing their knowledge of modern science that every culture has its own science and refers to the science in given culture as indigenous science” (Ogawa, 1995, p. 585). According to Ogawa (1995), people must distinguish between two levels of science: individual or personal science and cultural or societal science, referring science as culture dependent collective rational perceiving of reality as the collective means held in similar form by persons allow effective communication independent of any mind sets” (p. 588).   The need to integrate outcomes of research project which examine views on certain range of science teachers using method derived from constructive theory, and the study will have implications for science education in Brunei’s education system as of the present time as well as provide pointers to the provision of in service education as applied for secondary curriculum. There is need to examine interpersonal behavior in psychosocial learning environments and to determine the associations between science students’ perceptions of interactions with teachers, the cultural background of teachers and such attitudinal outcomes. There will be a sample of 100 students to participate, Questionnaire on Teacher Interaction instrument along with responses from such subscales of Test of Science related Attitudes as part of the attitudinal measures. Significant associations between students’ perceptions of teacher interpersonal behavior and cultural background of teachers can be detected. There can show that students perceived favorable interpersonal relationship with teachers in secondary science classrooms in Brunei as for example, noting that they enjoy science lessons more than those in other classes and implications for science instruction in Brunei case context will be assessed and discussed in brief.   The evaluating of attitudes towards and achievement in science of students studying in Brunei as attitudes towards and achievement in science of girls in single-sex schools were moderately better than those of girls in coeducational schools. Whereas the attitudes towards and achievement in science of boys in single-sex schools were only marginally better than the boys in coeducational schools. However, further research to investigate if these differences are repeated at other levels as well as in other subjects, extent to which school type contributed towards these differences is recommended. What are the views and beliefs of Brunei based science teachers on the nature of science? What are their concerns and needs in tackling this aspect of the science curriculum in the classroom? Will their beliefs and concerns exert influence on the way they present science to Brunei based students? These are the central questions addressed for this research study. In addition, the understanding how science students respond to anomalous datais essential to understanding knowledge acquisition in scienceclassrooms. Research present detailed analysis of ways in which science students respond to the data, analysis of factors that influence which of theseseven forms of response student will choose,giving special attention to the factors that make theory changemore likely and discussing implications of frameworkfor Brunei based science instruction. The curriculum specification attempted to broaden the aims of science teaching and to specify sequences for learning. Assessment policy struggled with attempts to enhance formative assessment and with tensions between external tests and teachers’ internal assessments. The story illustrates problems about progression in learning, about criterion referencing, about the weak state of formative assessment and about the optimum relationship between external testing and the formative and summative assessment roles of teachers, educators may be tempted to propose innovations which are too radical to succeed within its imperatives of rapid and inexpensive change.   References Atwater, M., & Riley, J. (1993). Multicultural science education: Perspectives, definitions, and research agenda. Science Education, 77, 661–668   Hodson, D. (1993). In search of a rationale for multicultural science education. Science Education, 77, 685–711   Ogawa, M. (1995). Science education in a multiscience perspective. Science Education, 79, 593– 593   Stanley, W., & Brickhouse, N. (1994). Multiculturalism, universalism, and science education. Science Education, 78, 387–398   Some readings to consider: Clark A. Chinn and William F. Brewer The Role of Anomalous Data in Knowledge Acquisition: A Theoretical Framework and Implications for Science Instruction Center for the Study of Reading, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign Review of Educational Research, Vol. 63, No. 1, 1-49 (1993) Harkirat S. Dhindsa and Gilbert Chung Attitudes and achievement of Bruneian science students International Journal of Science Education, 1464-5289, Volume 25, Issue 8, 2003, Pages 907 – 922 Myint Swe Khine and Darrell L. Fisher Teacher interaction in psychosocial learning environments: cultural differences and their implications in science instruction Research in Science & Technological Education, 1470-1138, Volume 22, Issue 1, 2004, Pages 99 – 111 Paul Black Curriculum and assessment in science education: the policy interface International Journal of Science Education, 1464-5289, Volume 17, Issue 4, 1995, Pages 453 – 469 Credit:ivythesis.typepad.com

Research Proposal on Brunei’s 21st Century Education

SECONDARY SCIENCE EDUCATION “Implication of science education in Brunei 21st Century Education system” One of philosophical debates...

Business Environment Analysis

Table of Contents   1. Introduction                                                                                                                        2   2. Discussion                                                                                                               3             2.1 Political Environment of Singapore                                                          3                      2.2 Economic Environment of Singapore                                                       4                      2.3 Monetary Situation                                                                                   6                      2.4 Legal or Administrative Situation                                                                        6                      2.5 Factor endowments                                                                                  7             2.6 Social and Cultural                                                                                   8   3. Conclusion                                                                                                              8   4. Recommendation                                                                                                    9   Appendices                                                                                                                 10             Appendix A                                                                                                    10             Appendix B                                                                                                    11   References                                                                                                                  13     Business Environment Analysis: New Zealand and Singapore   1. Introduction             Singapore is one of the most successful and economically efficient South East Asian countries. It is the only country in the South East Asian region that is as small only as a city, and as successful and as efficient as larger countries, such as Thailand, Brunei, and Malaysia. With its success and the name it has made in the economy of the whole South East Asian region, Singapore has become one of the most targeted and most sought out after country by many foreign investors from Europe, Asia, the Americas, and from the Australian region. As a proof of this, Singapore has been an active member of many existing world organizations and summits, such as the ASEAN, the APEC, the World Trade Organization, and many others. In this regard, this means that Singapore has already gained the trust of many countries in terms economic, political, societal, and technological advancements and capabilities.             Recently, both Australia and New Zealand have made various treaties and agreements with many Asian nations, including Singapore in order to further improve and enhance trade links and objectives. This is based on the belief that for a specific country or nation to perform efficiently and effectively in terms of its economy, export and import activities have to be supported. Likewise, the government of New Zealand believes so, leading to the current existing agreement between the nation and Singapore. The main objective of this essay is to evaluate and assess the economic, political, society, and culture of Singapore, in relation to New Zealand perspective. This will be done to be able to determine and understand the strengths and weaknesses of the Singaporean government, economy, politics and society in the basis of the existing trade agreements between the country and New Zealand. Trade, business, and transport barriers would be determined, thus, helping the researcher to make sound conclusions and recommendations on the last part of the essay. Data gathered would also be supported by charts and figures, serving as proofs of the collected data.   2. Discussion             To be able to understand and assess the problems that may arise due to the existing trade agreements and policies between Singapore and New Zealand, comparison between the two countries must be made. This can be done through comparison between New Zealand and Singapore’s political environments, economic systems, societies, and cultures.   2.1. Political Environment of Singapore             The political environment of Singapore exists based in a parliamentary republic, where the Prime Minister is the head of its government (  2007), and supports the different political parties that exist, including the People’s Action Party or PAP, the Worker’s Party or WP, the Singapore’s Peoples Party or the SPP, the Singapore Democratic Party or the SDP, and the Singapore Democratic Alliance (2007).  (2006) reports that the political environment of Singapore is unique, having only few opposition parties, leading to the lack of coups, resistance, and clashes. This serves to be the primary strength of its political environment, being safe and secured, thus, having no worries in terms of loss of investments and employment. Another strength of its political environment is its policy that attracts and supports employment for foreigners, talents, and skilled immigrants (2006). In contrast to its political environment, the politics and government of New Zealand is a constitutional monarchy with a parliamentary democracy. A prime minister and a Cabinet represents the government, but its Head is Queen Elizabeth II, by which activities are being administrated by the Governor-General (2007). In this regard, it can be observed that the political environments of both countries are completely different from one another.   2.2 Economic Environment of Singapore             Singapore’s economy is a highly developed free market economy that is open for businesses, and characterized by transparency, stable prices, and is free of corruption. It is one of the nations having high GDP or Gross Domestic Product, brought mainly about by its exported goods, that serve to be the primary source of its economy ( 2007). In addition, it is based on free enterprise, having no restrictions on foreign ownership in terms of business or employment, and it welcomes foreign investors, accompanied by lack of restrictions on the repatriation of profits and import of capital (2007). In addition, its economy grew by 7.9% in 2006, where its GDP growth is expected to slow to 4.6% in 2007, being a result of an expected slow down in demands for exports in the United States and Europe. The country’s government increased its GST rates to 7% in July 2007 and decreased its corporate tax rates. However, Singapore remains to be committed to its free trade, which would continue to expand the number of nations with which it has free trade agreements with ( 2007). These features have led the nation a number of advantages, such as the improvement of its tourism, due to the increase in the number of tourists destinations and activities, development of sea lanes, ports and airports, high levels of investments and savings, high purchasing power, improvement in terms of education and skills of workforce, and increase in trade agreements, including export and import products from and to other countries.             It has been mentioned earlier that exports, especially in terms of electronics and chemical services provide Singapore with its primary source of income. This allows the nation to purchase and obtain the necessary natural resources and raw materials that it lacks. Singapore then re-processes the purchased raw materials and natural resources in order to produce export products (2007). Among all the countries being traded with by Singapore, New Zealand serves to the primary nation with which Singapore has first signed a free trade agreement with. New Zealand has been one of the active countries from which Singapore obtains its natural resources, and serves to be the import products of Singapore from New Zealand. The different import products of Singapore from New Zealand are shown in Appendix A.             It has been reported that Singapore has been forcefully pursuing free trade agreements with a number of countries, including New Zealand, as the country became disappointed with the slow pace of trade liberalization talks under the World Trade Organization ( 2000). From this, it can be perceived that New Zealand has a great advantage in terms of its export products to Singapore, as the country needs its products for the daily subsistence and support of its citizens. 2.3 Monetary Situation             The currency of Singapore is the Singapore dollar or S$, and now is equivalent to one US dollar for 1.5225. On the other hand, the currency of New Zealand is the New Zealand dollar, and is equivalent to one US dollar for 0.7145. From this, it can be seen that the monetary situation of New Zealand is more stable than Singapore, having a lesser value of money than the US dollar. This is brought about by the higher inflation rates of New Zealand by 2.6% in December 2006 (2007). This is higher than the inflation rate of Singapore of 1% in 2006 (2007). However, both countries have relatively low inflation rates, which are favorable for foreign and local investors.   2.4 Legal or Administrative Situation             As mentioned earlier, Singapore is a corruption-free economy, thus, providing confidence and safety for both local and foreign investors in terms of investing and doing business in the country. Likewise, New Zealand is also a corruption-free country, being the second in the world. This is because New Zealand has a strong rule of law that protects property rights, resulting to the fact that foreign and locally owned businesses enjoy flexibility in licensing, regulation, and employment practices (2007). Such results are attributed to the laws or policies being implemented by both countries in terms of economy and investments. It has been reported that the government of Singapore has developed an outward-looking, export-oriented  2005), pro-business, pro-foreign investment economic policy framework, with its combination with state-directed investments in strategic government-owned corporations (2007). This policy encouraged two-way flows of trade and investment, thus, targeting the four “pillars” of manufacturing, namely, electronics, chemicals, engineering, and biomedical sciences, which encouraged foreign and local investments (2005). Likewise, New Zealand also adopted laws and restrictions in doing business. It has been emphasized that New Zealand is a common law jurisdiction, where the law is developed from case law and from statutes enacted by the New Zealand Parliament. The Overseas Investment Act of 2005 and the Overseas Investment Regulations of 2005, which applies to all types of investments, bound the law governing overseas investment and immigration. In addition, several other measures also govern and regulate businesses in New Zealand, such as the Commerce Act of 1986, the Fair Trading Act of 1986, the Consumers Guarantees Act of 1993, the Securities Markets Act of 1988, and the Resource Management Act of 1991 (2006).     2.5 Factor Endowments             New Zealand is one of the primary exporters of dairy products in Singapore, including milk, cheese, honey, and many others. As written in the table indicating the export products of New Zealand, other products, such as eggs, meat, fish, crustaceans, animal fur or skins, animal feeds, and edible fruits and nuts are the products being exported by New Zealand to different countries, including Singapore. Likewise, Singapore is also exporting goods and services to New Zealand, including electronic products, chemicals, and services. Singapore exports textile, clothing, footwear products, health, education, broadcasting services, and foreign investments.   2.6 Social and Cultural             Both Singapore and New Zealand have multi-cultural societies, having a lot of foreigners and immigrants from different parts of the world. This is because both countries have shortages in terms of workforce, thus, requiring the talents and skills of outside workforce. Currently, both countries have been importing skilled workers and immigrants from different parts of the world, such as the Middle East and Asian countries, including Malaysia, Indonesia and the Philippines. Due to this, cultural diversity can be observed in all aspects of both countries, such as in the medical field, construction, and manufacturing. It has been reported in the year 2000, 600,000 foreign workers are present in Singapore, comprising 27% of its total work force (2007). This contributed to its dense population, with an annual growth rate of 1.3%. As such, the presence of many varied cultures and languages in the country led to the existence of many religions in Singapore (2007). Likewise, New Zealand is also open for immigration from foreign workers and immigrants, as the country’s government is committed in increasing population to about 1% annually (2007). However, majority of the peoples of New Zealand are British in origin, along with others who are indigenous Maori (2007), thus, further increasing the cultural diversity in the country.   3. Conclusion             From the discussion, it can be deduced that advantages and benefits can be attained from the trade agreement between Singapore and New Zealand. Such advantages would both benefit the countries, thus, strengthening their bond and cooperation, and their desired economic, political, societal, and technological stability and efficiency. However, despite the assumed success of the trade agreement between Singapore and New Zealand, certain problems and conflicts can still be determined. Problems include increase in cultural diversity in many different aspects of society, problems affecting the small businesses of the Maori people, the problem with tariffs, and miscommunication. Such problems must be addressed in order to continue the effective and successful interrelationship and cooperation between two countries.   4. Recommendations             Primarily, the key recommendation for all problems or conflicts is communication. It would be helpful for both governments to communicate with one another often in order to talk about the many problems or conflicts that arise based on the situation. Another recommendation is the consistent and thorough evaluation of the existing agreement in order to know if certain businesses are being affected by the move of both governments. Through evaluation and assessment of the problems and existing agreements, small and local businesses and manufacturers would not be affected by the entry of foreign products in both countries. The last recommendation is to come up and implement policies regarding the existing agreement to ensure that all rules and policies that exist are being met.   Appendices   Appendix A. New Zealand Exports to Singapore from 1994 to 2009 New Zealand Exports to Singapore 1994 1999 2004 2009 (after 5 years from 2004) Dairy Products; Birds eggs; honey 19.3 million $US 36.8 million $US 61.0 million $US 77.0 million $US Edible preparations of meat, fish, crustaceans 8.5 million $US 12.2 million $US 12.2 million $US 15.4 million $US Electric machinery, sound and TV equipment 0.4 million $US 1.2 million $US 11.4 million $US 14.4 million $US Meat and edible meat offal 13.3 million $US 11.8 million $US 11.3 million $US 14.3 million $US Furskins and artificial fur 0 0.1 million $US 6.3 million $US 7.9 million $US Paper, paperboard, and articles 5.0 million $US 3.9 million $US 4.7 million $US 6.0 million $US Prep animal feed 2.0 million $US 1.3 million $US 3.8 million $US 4.8 million $US Nuclear reactors, boilers 1.1 million $US 2.6 million $US 3.7 million $US 4.7 million $US Edible fruits and nuts 2.8 million $US 4.1 million $US 2.9 million $US 3.7 million $US Modified starch, glue, enzymes 0 0.7 million $US 2.8 million $US 3.5 million $US Confidential items 111.2 million $US 146.9 million $US 120.2 million $US 151.9 million $US   TOTAL 163.6 million $US 221.6 million $US 240.4 million $US 303.7 million $US *** Table modified from “Asia to 2014: Macroeconomic Megatrends”, 2005   Appendix B. List of Existing Free Trade Agreements with Singapore Economy Agreement Abbreviation Concluded Signed Effective Legal text New Zealand Agreement between New Zealand and Singapore on a Closer Economic Partnership ANZSCEP 18 August 2000 14 November 2000 1 January 2001 [2] European Free Trade Association Agreement between the EFTA States and Singapore EFTA-Singapore FTA 11 April 2002 26 June 2002 1 January 2003 [3] Japan Agreement between Japan and the Republic of Singapore for a New-Age Economic Partnership JSEPA October 2001 13 January 2002 30 November 2002 [4] Australia Singapore-Australia Free Trade Agreement SAFTA November 2002 17 February 2003 28 July 2003 [5] United States United States-Singapore Free Trade Agreement USSFTA 19 November 2002 6 May 2003 1 January 2004 [6] Jordan Singapore Jordan Free Trade Agreement SJFTA 29 April 2004 16 May 2004   [7] Brunei Trans-Pacific Strategic Economic Partnership Agreement Trans-Pacific SEP   August 2005 1 January 2006 [8] Chile 18 July 2005 New Zealand 18 July 2005 India India – Singapore Comprehensive Economic Cooperation Agreement India-Singapore CECA November 2004 29 June 2005 1 August 2005 [9] Korea Korea-Singapore Free Trade Agreement KSFTA 28 November 2004 4 August 2005 End 2005 [10]   ( 2007)                               Credit:ivythesis.typepad.com

Business Environment Analysis

Table of Contents 1. Introduction ...