Research Topics: Free Essay Writing Samples

5 Questions

1. Main Factors in World Economic Environment Faced by International Business A. Economic Environment in Host Countries When it comes to the economic factors faced by international business, one of the major considerations is the economic environment in host countries where the international organization aims to operate. The economic environment has much to do with the scope of business, business prospects and business strategy. The nature and level of development of the economy, economic resources, size of the economy, economic system and economic policies, economic conditions, trends in the GNP growth rate and per capita income, nature of and trends in foreign trade, domestic supply and demand conditions are all factors relevant to business (Cherunilam, 2007). B. Exchange Rates             One of the important problems, a firm with international business may encounter is the currency exchange rate risk. Exchange risk is the probability that a company will be unable to adjust prices and costs to offset changes in the exchange rate. There are two types of foreign exchange risks or exposures: economic exposure and accounting exposure. Economic exposure refers to the risks arising from economic factors through economic transactions and other economic activities. Accounting exposure arises from the need, for purposes of reporting and consolidation, to convert the financial statements of foreign operations, from the local currencies involved, to the home currency (Cherunilam, 2008). C. Inflation             Inflation is also a big factor to consider by international businesses. This is because the purchasing power of the consumers depends on their real income. The higher the level of inflation, the lower is the real income and the purchasing power of the consumers. Because of this, when an international firm decides to operate in a foreign country, it has to take into account the rate of inflation in the host country. The rate of inflation is also important from the viewpoint of cost production. If it is high in the host country, the production cost of the host country plant will be higher. D. Availability of Human and Physical Resources             Availability of human and physical resources makes the manufacturing process easier and at the same time lowers the cost of production so as to confer upon the firm a competitive edge. This is because if such resources are in abundance, they are available with no difficulty and at a lower cost. It is not feasible for a multinational firm to transport the entire labor force from the home country, It normally employs its own men at the very senior positions and employs the rest of persons from the local manpower market. But this is possible only if skilled manpower is available locally. This is why a multinational firm looks at the availability of technical and managerial personnel whenever it analyzes the economic environment in the host country. E. Fiscal, Monetary, and Industrial Policies             Various forms of economic policies pursued in the host country make the economic environment either congenial or act as a deterrent to the operation of a multinational firm. A firm never relishes a high rate of corporate income tax, as it lowers the net profit. Sometimes firms employ various techniques, for example transfer pricing devices, to lower the incidence tax, but the management is not very easy. Beside the corporate income tax and excise duties, there is tariff or import duty. Such duties are either ad valorem, based on the value of the import, or specific, based on the quantity of the specific import, or mixed, combining both of them.   2. Roles of International Trade Organizations A. World Trade Organization (WTO)             The WTO has a number of functions. It is charged with facilitating the implementation and operation of the Multilateral Trade Agreements, providing a forum for negotiations, administering the dispute settlement mechanism, providing multilateral surveillance of trade policies, and cooperating with the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund (IMF) to achieve greater coherence in global economic policy-making. Between meetings of the Ministerial Conference the organization is managed by a General Council at the level of officials. Three subsidiary councils operate under the general guidance of the General Council: the Council for Trade in Goods; the Council for Trade in Services; and the Council for Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights. Separate committees deal with the interests of developing countries; surveillance of trade restrictions actions taken for balance of payment purposes; surveillance of regional trade agreements; trade-environment linkages; and the WTO’s finances and administration (Hoekman & Kostecki, 2001). B. World Bank             The World Bank is made up of two unique development institutions owned by 184 member countries – the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD) and the International Development Association (IDA). Each institution plays a different but supportive role in the mission of global poverty reduction and the improvements of living standards. The IBRD focuses on middle income and creditworthy poor countries, while IDA focuses on the poorest countries in the world. Together they provide low-interest loans, interest-free credit and grants to developing countries for education, health, infrastructure, communications and many other purposes. When it comes to international trade, the World Bank can be a source of relevant information and statistics about a given country, especially in the area of economics. C. World Customs Organization (WCO)             The World Customs Organization (WCO) is the only intergovernmental organization exclusively focused on Customs matters. With its worldwide membership, the WCO is now recognized as the voice of the global Customs community. It is particularly noted for its work in areas covering the development of global standards, the simplification and harmonization of Customs procedures, trade supply chain security, the facilitation of international trade, the enhancement of Customs enforcement and compliance activities, and piracy initiatives, public-private partnerships, integrity promotion, and sustainable Customs capacity building programs.             International Chamber of Commerce (ICC)             The International Chamber of Commerce (ICC) was founded in Atlantic City in 1919; its headquarters are based in Paris. It is a non-governmental organization of thousands of companies and business organizations in more than 130 countries. One of its main objectives is to harmonize trade practices and to promote trade, investment and free market. It also draws up voluntary codes, which set ethical standards and offers a number of practical services to businesses. In the international financial services sector, the ICC Commission on Financial Services aims to monitor, report on and make policy recommendations, especially as regards deposit banking and investment banking, and their implications for businesses.          United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD)             UNCTAD was created in 1964 as an expression of the belief that a cooperative effort of the international community was required to bring about changes in the world economic order that would allow developing countries to participate more fully in a prospering world economy. The themes addressed by UNCTAD over the years have included: ·         Expanding and diversifying the exports of goods and services of developing countries, which are their main sources of external finance for development ·         Encouraging developed countries to adopt supportive polices, particularly by opening their markets and adjusting their productive structures ·         Strengthening international commodity markets on which most developing countries depend for export earnings and enhancing such earnings through their increased participation in the processing, marketing and distribution of commodities, and the reduction of that dependence through the diversification of their economies ·         Expanding the export capacity of developing countries by mobilizing domestic and external resources, including development assistance and foreign investment ·         Strengthening technical capabilities and promoting appropriate national policies ·         Alleviating the impact of debt on the economies of developing countries and reducing their debt burden ·         Supporting the expansion of trade and economic cooperation among developing countries as a mutually beneficial complement to their traditional economic linkages with developed countries               3. Political Risk             Political risk is defined by Kobrin (1982) as politically generated circumstances which may have significant implications or management Jodice (1985) defines political risk as changes in the operating conditions of foreign enterprises that arise out of the political process that affect ownership and behavior of the firm. Political risk according to this definition can be conceptualized as events, or a series of events, in the national and international environments that can affect physical assets, personnel and operations of foreign firms (cited in Rugman & Brewer, 2001).             A major nonfinancial risk is political risk. Companies know in advance that they must operate in accordance with government regulations. Where these are known, there is no risk. Risk is the unexpected imposition of regulations and controls not originally known or anticipated, including burdensome regulations, interference in the operations of an affiliate, and confiscation of property. Burdensome regulations can take the form or limitations on employment by setting quotas for the number of local employees and managers that have to be hired, degree of local ownership or local content of a product, and restrictions on profit remittances and investment. Restrictions on investment can take the form of a denial, or limitation, on additional investment with a high potential return, or a requirement to increase investment in something with a low return. Operational interference includes any government activity that hampers operational efficiency. Examples are forced unionization of workers, mandated purchases of needed supplies from local companies that may not be competitive in price and quality, excessive training requirements for local workers, and redundant or ineffectual safety and operating requirements. Operational interference can be external to the business, such as a government providing unmerited support to a competitor. An example of this is a locally owned company being awarded a contract even though the company may not be competitive on price or performance with a globally owned affiliate. Confiscation can be in the form of expropriation, where a single company is taken over by the government, or nationalization, where an entire industry is taken over. International law generally empowers governments to take these actions as long as fair and equitable payment is promptly made (Feist et al, 1999).   4. The Role of Culture There are different challenges and threats that an international business faces when it decides to pursue markets abroad. These challenges can be legal, economic, social, technological or cultural. Of significant interest among managers is the impact of culture on the operations and success of an international company. Culture has different impacts on how people interact and in many cases, it can affect the organization and its people. Cultural differences are found in areas such as language, values, and behaviors.  According to Graham (2001) problems arising from cultural differences are often neglected but they have a huge impact on the performance and success of the international organization and on how its people can be managed.             Every country has a different culture that sets it apart from the rest. Every country has a different history, government and laws. The more countries with which a firm interacts, the more complex and difficult conducting business becomes. According to Briscoe and Schuler (2004) the primary cause of this complexity and high level of difficulty has to do with the importance and critical nature of the differences between various countries’ cultures (p. 114). International businesses are now increasingly interacting with various countries and cultures. The impact of culture, that is, a group of people’s values, beliefs, and behavior patterns are of utmost significance in the achievement of success. Different aspects of the international business such as cross-national negotiations, sales interactions between people from different countries, management of the performance of employees from different countries, and the understanding and treatment of contracts from different countries are, in one way or another, affected by culture. In addition, Human Resources responsibilities, such as staffing, compensation, training, labor relations and performance appraisal are affected by culture (Briscoe and Schuler 2004, p. 114). Geert Hofstede (1984) conducted what is considered as the most influential work on business cultures. Hofstede identified five cultural dimensions that affect international businesses. These dimensions are: 1. Power Distance             This dimension is about the degree of hierarchy and inequality in power between the superiors and subordinates in a given group, organization or society. There is a bigger gap between people in power or position and those who are not in power or position in countries where the power distance is large. In this type of group, organization and society, people see themselves as unequal. In countries where there is a huge power distance, most of the subordinates rely on the superiors for decision-making, planning and management. Most of the time, the subordinates are just following the orders of the superiors. In those countries where there is little power distance, on the other hand, subordinates may take an active role in decision-making, planning and management. And they may sometimes question the leadership. 2. Uncertainty Avoidance             This dimension of culture is about how the people in a given culture view uncertainties or risks and how they deal with them. Those countries or organizations with high uncertainty avoidance will often avoid risks or will likely steer clear of ambiguities. People in high uncertainty avoidance culture will often rely on heavily formalized structures and will not tolerate ideas and actions that deviate from the established standards.   Those people in a low uncertainty avoidance culture are often more open for changes and challenges. They work in a more informal environment. 3. Individualism vs. Collectivism             This is the dimension of culture that is concern about which people in a given culture value more – the individual or the group. In high individualism culture, the goals and aspirations as well as the interests of the individual is given more importance that the interests of the group in which he or she belongs. In a high collectivism culture, the interests of the group is of higher importance than the interest of the individual members. The social framework in an individualistic society is looser than that of a more collectivist society and individuals take responsibility for themselves and their immediate as opposed to extended families. Individualist societies demonstrate a greater regard for individual rights and freedoms and tend to be characterized by assertiveness and competitiveness rather than by teamwork and cooperation. In more collectivist societies, it is the group that looks after the interest of individuals and gives them their sense of identity. In return for this protection, individuals offer the group loyalty and the work towards the attainment of goals determined by and for the good of the group, organization, tribe or society.   4. Masculinity – Femininity             Societies that place a high premium on assertiveness, achievement and the acquisition of material possessions are exhibiting aggressive or masculine goal behavior. Masculine environments also favor conflict and competition in the workplace. Cultures that place high value on social relationships, quality of life and sensitivity demonstrate passive or feminine goal behavior. Cultures and workplaces scoring high on the femininity dimension exhibit high degrees of cooperation, negotiation and compromise (Johnson and Turner 2003). 5. Short-term vs. Long-term Orientation             In countries with a short-term orientation the emphasis is on the immediate gratification of needs, a focus on the present and the attainment of short-term goals. In cultures with a more long-term orientation the satisfaction of needs is deferred for the sake of long-term benefits and growth.     References Briscoe, D. & Schuler, R. (2004). International human resource management: Policies and practices for the global enterprise. New York: Routledge. Cherunilam, F. (2007). International business: Text and Cases. PHI Learning. Cherunilam, F (2008). International economics. Tata MacGraw-Hill. Hoekman, B. M. & Kostecki, M. M. (2001). The political economy of the world trading system: The WTO and beyond. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Jodice, D. (1985). Political risk assessment: An annotated bibliography. Westport Connecticut: Greenwood Press. Kobrin, S. J. (1982). Managing political risk assessment. Brekeley California: University of California Press. Proctor, T. (2000). Strategic marketing: An introduction. London: Routledge. Rugman, A. M. & Brewer, T. L. (Eds.) (2001). The Oxford handbook of international business. Oxford: Oxford University Press.   Credit:ivythesis.typepad.com

5 Questions

1. Main Factors in World Economic Environment Faced by International Business A. Economic Environment in Host Countries When it comes ...

Internal Control

Internal Control Introduction The management in various organizations is obliged to provide necessary controls, particularly in their internal system. The implementation of such internal control and policy are applied to secure the revenues and have a proper allocation on the expenses and resources. Having the internal control in the management will sure create a great change among the structure of operation in the business. Internal Control The internal control system or ICS is supported in two basic parts which are procedures and controls. The procedures can establish the necessary performance of the organizations through the operation meanwhile; the controls are applied to ensure the conducted procedures of the business. The ICS allows the management to determine the measurement of the conditions or characteristics that can damage the entire organizations and turn into the improvements and cost-effectiveness (Brewer and List, 2004). There are changes that might drive the organization change its process, objectives, and others, for over the time. The internal control is an ongoing process and can help the entire organization to analyze its goals and objectives. Determining the risks is another scope of the control that can be describe as the detective and preventive controls (Brewer and List, 2004; Benison, 2007). Taking the idea of changes and the detective/ preventive actions, it only emphasizes that the management should place a monitoring action on the controls of the activities. Basically, monitoring helps the entire organization to ensure the effectiveness of the ICS as well as the effectiveness and efficiency of the policies, procedures and the responsibilities (Benison, 2007). Organizations should create a consistent philosophy regarding the establishment of the sound internal control system to help the organization in improving the overall business efficiency, communication and cooperation, and managing the basic policies (Nabtesco, 2006). Effectiveness of Internal Control The effectiveness should be also according with the efficiency and both are the fundamental management responsibilities. Effectiveness is judged on the basis of the results on the implementation of ICS. In an organization, the success of ICS as well as recognizing its effectiveness is based on meeting its objectives. The most effective representation of the control is done through recording. The manager has a responsibility to ensure that there is an internal control and therefore, emphasizing their function in monitoring the sales and the performance of the people. This gives rise to the relation of internal control in detecting or preventing the misstatements or errors in the records thus, allowing the controls to be consistent to avoid the discrepancies in the values (CPA, 2002). The Effect of Internal Control on Management and Performance Through testing the effectiveness of the controls and assessing the risks, the strategy in increasing sales can be achieved. By the use of appropriate procedures of inquiry, documentation, observation, and re-performance, the manager can understand how well the internal control is implemented. All the gathered information, the auditor (who is usually different from the manager) can observe if the financial statement is auditable as well as determining the risk that might involve in the system and how it can be controlled. It is true that there is a need for control system, not only for assessing the risks and creating an action or response but also for the security of the entire organization. The ICS is best applied with the guidance of the objectives which is to have a clear communication on the duties and responsibilities of the people, have a system that is appropriate on the activities, and to recognize the critical points in every activity and ensuring it. The assurance of the effectiveness of the internal control is based on the continuous monitoring whether the system in adequately designed properly, executed and effective in the certain activity. In the continuous process of internal control, the management can realize a more systematic way in handling the activities that involves the cash or budget handling. Conclusion The internal control should be performed by a person who has the knowledge in internal control operation or having the background in accountancy. All the knowledge and skills of the individual will reflect on the recording processes or financial statements of the company. The firm should be aware that the presence of errors and inconsistency in reporting can be a sign that there is a fraudulent action within the procedures. Also, the manager must maintain the communication to ensure that the process in the management is being followed. The internal controls can significantly return the core advantages in the business such as stability and improvement in the accountability.     References: Benison, M., (2007) Internal Control Guide, Office of the Comptroller, Quality Assurance Bureau [Online] Available at: http://www.mass.gov/Aosc/docs/business_functions/bf_int_cntrls/Internal_Control_Guide_Volume_I.pdf [Accessed 07 September 2010] Brewer, D., & List, W., (2004) Measuring the Effectiveness of an Internal Control System, Gamma Secure Systems Limited, Wm.List & Co. [Online] Available at: http://www.gammassl.co.uk/topics/time/time040317.pdf [Accessed 07 September 2010]. CPA, (2002) Assessing the Effectiveness of Internal Control over Financial Reporting in Accordance With Section 404 of the Sarbanes-Oxley Act of 2002, Certified Public Accountants, McGladrey & Pullen [Online] Available at: http://www.mcgladrey.com/Resource_Center/Articles/SarbanesOxleyActInternalControl.pdf [Accessed 07 September 2010] Nabtesco, (2006) CSR Activities Corporate Governance, Annual Report [Online] Available at: http://www.nabtesco.com/ir/pdf/2006_3/AR/annual_report_2006_005.pdf [Accessed 07 September 2010].   Credit:ivythesis.typepad.com

Internal Control

Internal Control Introduction The management in various organizations is obliged to provide necessary controls, particularly in their i...

Legal Issue in Medical Setting

Legal Issue Based on the case, the medical staff/s had problems in the excessive alcohol consumptions which affect the ability of the patient to create decisions. This also plays a primary role in the medical condition of the patient because he gained injuries through the accidents that lead him to the hospital. The intervention done by the medical staff is necessary to identify any blood clots that may appear into his skull. However, the resistance of the patient gives him the autonomy, which is important part of ethics in medical settings. In the continuous assessment of the medical staff, it appeared that the patient is unwilling to cooperate.  In this event, the most applicable solution that the medical staff can deliver is to present the trained professionals who have some expertise in terms of motivational interventions. This type of professional can understand the alcohol problems that can present the series of options to assist the patient. The nurse, although not intentionally, is trying to do her best to execute her duty and it natural for her to defend herself. An alcoholic or sober acts brawly which starts when he is in the middle of noisy and chaotic nature of emergency settings. Therefore, it is important that the staff emphasized the communication rather than confrontation. One doctor noticed the changes on the patient which arise the ethics on non-maleficence, or the duty not to do harm on the patients, this is where the responsibility comes in. In their action to save the life of the patient, even without the concern of the relatives (because they fail to find any), still the doctors want to perform an operation which is necessary that time to lengthen the life of the patient.  However, the hospital failed to be responsible in measuring the security on the patient because the conflict emerges. In the attempt of the staff to locate the relative, an impersonator arrived claimed to be his wife but then found out that she might be a reporter. This caused a great tension in the hospital when another relative arrived and claim to be his niece. During the operation, the staff should the ethics in beneficence which is about doing their best for the patients. And in the law of medical practice, there is another ethical consideration called justice which is difficult to assess because of the presence of equity and fair distribution and other conflicts. Medical Malpractice or Medical Intervention For over the years, the reputation of medical professionals is centered in the ideas of integrity and knowledge. However there are some cases and instances that the medical professionals are subject to an assault which might involve the cancelation of their permit to medical practice. The medical malpractice is about the liability of the medical staff/s because of their poor performance in their functions. The malpractice is often applied as a strong legal case in the event that there is negligence towards the injured patients. The reasons that may arise in committing malpractice depends on the situation – it’s either there is a lack of responsibility on the side of the medical practitioners, or the lack of cooperation coming from the patient’s side. In the application of law, once a medical practitioner is proven in medical malpractice, the system of tort liability is possible. Quasi-Delict or Tort or Culpa Aquiliana, states about a person who by an act or omission causes injury or damage to another reason of his fault or negligence, and therefore shall be liable to pay damages to the injured party. This constitutes the following: ·         The fault or negligence must spring from the spontaneous act or omission of the offender, and not from a pre-existing contractual relationship between the offender and the offended or injured party; and ·         There was no intent to commit injury or damage by the offender. In the involvement of actual malpractice cases, the negligence became too apparent thus creating a negative face for the entire medical society. In the presented scenario, the plaintiff (patient) and the defendant (physician) might have different point of views.  The tort system suggests a need for deep investigation before creating the judgments. Law in Surgery             If there is a medical malpractice done by a surgeon on its patients, the patient has a right to sue the surgeon. If the surgeon, or rather the hospital or medical institution did not receive any payment from the patient therefore, they have the right sue against the patient. It is only a matter of obligation in each party and they must comply in their respective responsibilities. At some point there is a conflict between the law and the ethics with regards to the medicine. The conflict between specific ethical principles, or conflict between the conscience of the individual doctor and a legal request for medical services which are morally unacceptable to that doctor, are dilemmas with which the medical profession is familiar. As society through its parliament and its courts increasingly wishes to use the law to regulate aspects of medical practice, situations will arise where the law appears to be in direct conflict with the generally agreed ethical code of the profession References: Breen, K.J., Plueckhahn, V.D., & Cordner, S.M., (1997) Ethics, Law and Medical Practice, Allen & Unwin, St. Leonards, N.S.W. Brennan, T.A., & Mello, M.M., (2004) Patient Safety and Medical Malpractice: A Case Study, American College of Physicians [Online] Available at: http://www.annals.org/content/139/4/267.full [Accessed 07 September 2010]. DiClemente, C.C., Soderstrom, C., (2003) Session 3.Intervening with Alcohol Problems in Emergency Settings, Alcohol Problems Among Emergency Department Patients [Online] Available at: http://www.cdc.gov/ncipc/pub-res/alcohol_proceedings/Session3-PDF.pdf [Accessed 07 September 2010]. Law of Contract [Online] Available at: http://law.jrank.org/pages/12504/Contract-Law.html [Accessed 07 September 2010].   Credit:ivythesis.typepad.com

Legal Issue in Medical Setting

Legal Issue Based on the case, the medical staff/s had problems in the excessive alcohol consumptions which affect the ability of the pa...

SUBSTANCE ABUSE BY STREET CHILDREN IN KISUMU CITY, KENYA, AFRICA

Studies have found that between 25 percent and 90 percent of street children use psychoactive substances of some kind. The word substance describes any psychoactive material which when consumed affects the way people feel, think, see, taste, smell, hear, or behave. A psychoactive substance can be a medicine or an industrial product, such as glue. Some substances are legal such as approved medicines, alcohol, and cigarettes, and others are illegal, such as heroin and cannabis.             The types of psychoactive substances street children use can be many and varied and it may be difficult to determine what substances they are using. Substances which are sold on the market can be identified by their generic name. This is the standard name used throughout the world. However, some substances are marketed under various names known as trade names and others have ‘street names’. Some of the substances that street children use are: ·         Alcohol – a depressant which inhibits or decreases some aspects of central nervous system activity ·         Nicotine – a stimulant; that is any substance which activates, enhances or increases central nervous system activity ·         Opioids – substances in this group may act as analgesics and depressants ·         Hallucinogens – Hallucinogenic substances can alter a person’s mood, the way the person perceives his or her surroundings and the way the person experiences his or her own body ·         Cannabis – the cannabis plant grows in many parts of the world ·         Hypnosedatives – the drugs in this group are made synthetically and do not occur naturally ·         Stimulants – this group of substances activate, enhance or increase central nervous system activity ·         Inhalants – include a wide range of easily available products including aerosols, volatile solvents and gases Substances can be used in many different ways. They may be: ·         Chewed, swallowed or dissolved slowly in the mouth ·         Placed on a mucous membrane ·         Rubbed into the skin ·         Injected under the skin or into a vein or muscle with a needle ·         Smoked or inhaled through the mouth or nose, or inhaled by placing a bag over the head known as bagging The way the substance is take also influences how fast the substance reaches the brain or other organs. Injecting a substance is especially dangerous because of the risks of infection that are carried through the blood. In particular, sharing needles or other injecting equipment and the way the substance is prepared can spread HIV, hepatitis B and C, and other infections because of contaminations with infected blood.             Any substance can be harmful to a human body if taken in large enough doses, too frequently or in impure form. The health effects of substances can occur immediately or in the long-term. The effects are influenced by the dose, the method of administration as well as whether the substance is used with another drug.             There are different contributing factors in the development of substance abuse. According to Grabowski and Vandenbos (1992) people develop addictive behaviors through the influence of biological, psychological and socio-cultural factors. These factors are believed to contribute to substance abuse and dependence.   Biological Factors             In determining an individual’s vulnerability or resistance to substance effects and the associated risk of abuse, biological factors are important. There are different researches and documents that points to a person’s genetic makeup as one of the contributing factors of substance abuse. For example, it has been found out that the son of an alcoholic is more likely to develop alcoholism than the son of a non-alcoholic (Crabbe et al 1985; Goodwin 1990; Newlin and Thompson 1991). However, it is also claimed that biological vulnerability or a genetic predisposition for substance abuse may not cause a problem unless the person at risk is exposed to an environment that facilitates or brings out the problem behavior (Grabowski and Vandenbos 1992). According to Zucker (1987) exposure to high-risk environments may add up to a person’s biological vulnerability and genetic predisposition.             Aside from biological vulnerability, the impact of substance use on a person’s body chemistry and physiology is also seen as a contributing factor is the development of abusive behavior towards substances. Researches, such as those conducted by Hunt (1990) and Tabakoff and Hoffman (1991) revealed that drugs that immediately affect a person’s body chemistry have a higher addiction potential than those that have delayed effects.   Psychological Factors             One’s personal beliefs, expectations, and attributions about the effects of different substance affect substance abuse. Researchers believe that there are certain personality traits that can be associated with substance abuse. These include sensation seeking, impulsivity, and negative effect (Cox 1988). One important psychological element is motivation as it affects the desire for initial drug use that could lead to problems and the desire to change one’s pattern of abuse or dependence (Cox 1990). Personality trait is also a significant factor. Zukerman (1979) identified sensation seeking as a trait that may be common on substance abusers (cited in Peterson 2002, p. 32). Other personality traits that are associated with substance abuse are antisocial personality characteristics and personality disorder, risk taking, novelty seeking, reward dependency and lack of harm avoidance (Otter and Martin 1996 cited in Peterson 2002, p. 32).   Social Factors             Social deprivation is a term generally used to incorporate poverty, inadequate housing and living conditions, and constrained access to education, transport, work and recreation. Deprivation can be a factor in substance abuse. Deprivation may be related to age of first use, progression to dependence, intravenous use and dangerous use, health and social complications of use and to criminal association (Peterson 2002).             Family and peer pressures can increase or decrease the risk of substance abuse. According to Jacob (1987), the risk of developing substance abuse among people who were raised in a dysfunctional family setting, especially those who were exposed to drug and alcohol problems is high. Moreover, children who experienced physical and sexual abuse have a high potential to develop substance abuse. Adolescents are influenced by their peers. Because of peer influence and social pressure, many adolescents engage in risk-taking behaviors. These adolescents run a high risk of committing various antisocial and delinquent acts, including substance abuse (White et al 1990). Lack of parental supervision and the lack of alternative recreational activities further increase the risk of substance abuse (Hawkins et al 1992). Gang membership and participation is also seen as a risk for substance abuse. Society as a whole serves to promote reliance on alcohol, tobacco, and other drugs as an access to an exciting life. In addition, the media is also seen as a contributing factor to the growing problem in substance abuse. Advertisements tend to glamorize and sensationalize drinking, smoking and drug use in the eyes of young viewers.   Credit:ivythesis.typepad.com

SUBSTANCE ABUSE BY STREET CHILDREN IN KISUMU CITY, KENYA, AFRICA

Studies have found that between 25 percent and 90 percent of street children use psychoactive substances of some kind. The word substance...

Quotas, Tariffs, and Dumping

Quotas, Tariffs, and Dumping Introduction In the response of every economies in the world wide and in the aim of the each government to protect their domestic industries, the trade policies are created. The World Trade Organization (WTO) is the main international governing body that monitors the trading policies imposed by various countries to effectively resolve the disputes or problems and in the end, reach the agreement among the trading countries.  Trade Policies Tariff is a tax that is applied on imports and most of the tariffs are imposed based on the products that should be imported. Examples of tariffs are specific tariffs which is based on the unit of taxable imports and ad valorem tariffs which is based on the value of the imports. Tariffs are imposed because of four reasons: (1) to discourage the consumption, most especially in those products that are not promoting health and wellness like cigarettes and tobaccos and alcohols; (2) to raise revenues; (3) to discourage importation; and (4) to protect the domestic industries. If all of the people in the country will patronize the international products then the domestic industry will demise leaving the country underdeveloped and exploited with all its promising resources and skills. In the economic welfare, the trade policies are suggested to be the effective rate for the protection. This means that the taxes should be not too high in order to maintain the trading relationships of the country with the others; but not too law to continue the restriction and regulation of the products. The tariff rates vary across the goods and services and even over time. The weighted average tariff rate is the sum of weighted tariff rates that are imposed for each good in the rates based on the percentage value of the import of that good which is relative to the total value of all imports. There are also Non-Tariff barriers or policies that can be applied in trading which are quotas and dumping. Quotas are the quantitative restrictions on imports. It can be also applied in exportation voluntarily and with the effectiveness of subsidies. While dumping, is considered as regulatory and technical standards. Most of its application is used by the government in terms of purchasing policies. In the comparison of tariff against the non-tariff policies, it is addressed that if a country solely implemented the quotas, the country will experience greater loss in their welfare and domestic industries. This is because quota is less flexible making it less effective. Responses of the Countries In various countries, the imposition of tariffs is welcome but it may have the threat to increase the cost of the products in the domestic, most especially on the products that are considered as the necessity of the consumers. The use of strict trade policy might injure the trading competition, especially of the least developed countries. However, if there is promotion on free trade between the nations or lowering the tariffs and even the other barriers to trade such as quotas, there is not enough security for the country to limit the entrance of import products. The effect of quota as compared to tariff is not that strong which cannot also satisfy the aim of the country in safeguarding their domestic industries. Within the context of trade policies, it is assumed that the tariffs and quotas should both incorporate in the idea of imports to avoid the cause or threat in the domestic industries. The small importing countries are the main “losers” if the tariff imposed in one country is too high. This is the very reason on why most of the economists are against the imposition of the tariff because of the small country will not only realize much loss but also the same injury in their industry as much perceived by the other countries. But despite to the negative effects of tariff impositions, the primary reason for the imposition of tariff is that governments are using these trading policies to raise the revenue, aside from the individual and business taxes they imposed in their nation. The secondary reason is the politics which emphasizing the protective action of the government in protecting the domestic firms and not create much damage in the consumers. Third reason is that a small-country may not hold in the competition which is different from the ability of developed countries. If a large-country has a decrease in imports demanded due to the tariff causes foreign exporters to lower their prices. References:   Import Tariffs and Quotas under Perfect Competition, (2007) [Online] Available at: http://www.worthpublishers.com/html/staticcontent/nonstandard/include/0716792834/IR_Sample_Import%20Tariffs%20and%20Quotas%20under%20Perfect%20Competition.pdf [Accessed 08 September 2010]. Import Tariffs and Quotas under Perfect Competition, (2008) [Online] Available at: http://www.worthpublishers.com/html/staticcontent/nonstandard/include/0716792834/TradeCH08.pdf [Accessed 08 September 2010]. Credit:ivythesis.typepad.com

Quotas, Tariffs, and Dumping

Quotas, Tariffs, and Dumping Introduction In the response of every economies in the world wide and in the aim of the each government to...

Anemia Management

Anemia Management Introduction The anemia is considered as contributor in the development of consequences in kidney diseases and kidney problems. Although the behavior or the relationship between the two factors of illness is not yet fully understood, the medical practitioners are attempting to resolve the earlier signs of it to manage and, at least, limit the perceived outcomes. Anemia often develops early in the course of chronic kidney disease in patients with kidney diseases, as well increasing the consequences in the situation of the patient under the medication of chronic kidney disease. Anemia is also identified to likely contribute to the high incidence of cardiovascular disease observed in patients with kidney diseases. Therefore, in order to prevent the consequences among the patients, the appropriate anemia management should be provided. What is Anemia? Anemia is characterized with a low level of red blood cells. Patients with kidney disease often have anemia because their kidneys do not produce enough of the hormone erythropoietin. This hormone stimulates red blood cell production. Anemia is common in patients with CKD, and is almost universal in patients with stage 5 chronic kidney disease (CKD) who are on dialysis. In addition, anemia is a significant condition that leads to symptoms including severe fatigue, dizziness, poor appetite, lack of clear thinking, rapid heartbeat, shortness of breath, and depression.   Separately, kidney diseases and anemia are each associated with significant morbidity and mortality. While the contribution of anemia to the development of the consequences of kidney diseases is not completely understood, it is imperative that both be managed to limit negative outcomes. Anemia in patients likely contributes to the high incidence of cardiovascular disease (CVD) observed in these patients. People with kidney diseases are two to four times more likely to have heart disease or suffer a stroke than people without kidney diseases, and approximately 75% of patients with kidney diseases die of CVD-related causes. Anemia is associated with a greater incidence of left ventricular hypertrophy, recurrent cardiac failure, and increased cardiac-related hospitalizations and deaths. Since many patients with kidney diseases develops anemia, it is advised that a proper management on anemia should be provided. This is to avoid any further complications in the system and situation of the patient under medication. Anemia Management Anemia is managed with an appropriate combination of iron supplements and erythropoietin stimulating agents (ESAs—often referred to as EPO). ESAs are introduced to treat anemia in patients with renal disease has dramatically improved patient quality of life. In addition, patients no longer have to be transfused on a regular basis. Before ESAs were available, patients commonly received red blood cell transfusions, which carried the risks of infection, iron overload, and potentially reducing the chances of receiving a kidney transplant. Given the fact that there is a major loss of blood inherent with dialysis, ESA treatment sustains the hemoglobin level and allows patients to have higher levels of energy. As a result, patients are able to engage more in normal daily activities, including preparing a meal, working or volunteering, attending school, managing a household, raising children, etc. Furthermore, the patients’ clinical conditions, such as rapid heartbeat, shortness of breath, and lack of clear thinking, often improve significantly. With the proper care and anemia management, a patient can have a better quality of life. This type of health care management was introduced to be one of the advances in the care of the patients with kidney problems and this development is an important part of the dialysis procedure. However, there are no specific recommendations for monitoring non-hematological laboratory tests or monitoring non-hemoglobin elements of complete blood count (CBC). The anemia management done by the medical professionals is expected to show effects on the renal function that can be both harmful and beneficial for the patients. Conclusion The medical setting innovatively produced a kind of development that can assess the continuous fight of the patient over their diseases. In the investigation of the connection of anemia in the condition of CKD patients, the hemoglobin levels are the references of the nurses and medical staff to adequately manage the therapy. With the help of the proper administration the benefits or improvement in the therapy can be shown through the changes among the patient. Because anemia is characterized in human blood, the renal functions and dialysis can be dangerous for the patient who is considered anemic. References: NKF (2007) KDOQI Clinical Practice Guideline and Clinical Practice Recommendations for Anemia in Chronic Kidney Disease: Update of Hemoglobin Target, National Kidney Foundation [Online] Available at: http://www.therenalnetwork.org/qi/resources/KDOQIAnemiaCKD2007Update.pdf [Accessed 08 September 2010]. Overview on Anemia & Diabetes (2005) [Online] Available at: http://www.anemia.org/professionals/monograph/mon_Anemia_and_Diabetes.pdf [Accessed 08 September 2010]. The Facts about Anemia and Anemia Management for Patients with Chronic Kidney Disease (CKD), Renal Support Network [Online] Available at: http://www.rsnhope.org/WeKANAdvocacy/AnemiaFacts.pdf [Accessed 08 September 2010]. Credit:ivythesis.typepad.com

Anemia Management

Anemia Management Introduction The anemia is considered as contributor in the development of consequences in kidney diseases and kidney...

Importance of Public Relations in an Organization

Importance of Public Relations in an Organization                 Image and reputation is an important factor for an enterprise to grow.   Establishing a good name in the market strengthens the trust rate among   customers and eventually, continuous patronage from the consumers will   increase the profits of the business. Thus, public relations is an important issue   an organization deals with.               Public relations is the function of communication management which   evaluates public attitudes and interest in line with planning and executing   program of actions to earn public understanding and acceptance. PR includes   public affairs, community relations, internal communications, press conferences   and media events. It is involved in creating a good public image that is usually   needed for commercial businesses, high-profile personalities and organizations.   But in the terms of enterprises, it is highly concerned in maintaining and   enhancing a company’s good reputation in order to attract more possible   customers.               One of the necessary characteristics of an entrepreneur is being an   opportunity seeker. Thus, public relations opens a wide array of opportunities in   having an edge over competitors. Looking appealing and interesting will attract   customers and eventually outplay other enterprises. Standing out from the crowd   is the best way in dealing with the highly competitive nature of the world of   business.               At its core, public relations revolves around the universal truth that people   act based upon their perception of things. And due to managing, controlling, and   influencing people’s perceptions, public relations works as initiating a sequence   of expected behaviors from the customers that will lead to achievement of   organization’s goals and objectives. In through the course of campaigns of public   relations, it follows a set of principles in achieving the success of the enterprise. It   begins with the identification of the problems, moving into implementing key   communication tactics while monitoring progress. Skilled publicists are trained in   creating, changing or reinforcing people’s opinion through persuasion.               Moreover, public relations officer deals with the attitudes and concerns of   consumers, stakeholders, employees, and the community in order to establish   cooperative working relationships amongst them. In addition, the traditional role   of public relations is to convey its message to its audience, particularly the   customers, in continuously developing programs that will keep the lines of   communication between the business and its customers. This includes   promotional activities and customer service representatives.               For most businesses, public relations is an important issue because it puts   the organization in the position of public visibility. It is a necessary consideration   because it creates consumer base that is a basic step in reaching a larger   market. Poor relationship with the customers could probably have a negative   effect on the growth of the business. And its most significant effect on the   enterprise is on the decline of sales, which will directly hit the revenue of the   business.                For some publicists, they ought to call it target market relations instead of   public relations. This is because it is highly involved in targeting a possible range   of market which is concerned in utilizing communication about a new product,   spreading news about the services, or making major advertisement about the   company. Public relations is public communication, but it only marks interest on   potential prospects or investors, in the case of partnership. Defining the target   will specify the strategies for the process of public relations.               The bottom line of public relations is getting a word about the company, its   products and services from the potential customers. As people see it, getting   attention from the public is just a part of marketing strategy and gimmick.   However, for enterprises, it is a crucial factor in the growth of the organization,   including its achievement of major goal which is to reach the largest possible   market. Engaging in developing public relations will cost time and money, but   strong commitment in creating a good image and reputation will pay off the dues   and pave the way for a better future of the organization.     References: Cortwell, Neoko, The Importance of Public Relations in Your Business, http://ezinearticles.com   Lautenslager, Al, Why You Need PR, November 2003, http://www.entrepreneur.com/   The Importance of Public Relations, http://www.worldwidelearn.com       Credit:ivythesis.typepad.com

Importance of Public Relations in an Organization

Importance of Public Relations in an Organization Image and reputation is an important factor for an enterprise to gro...