Research Topics: Media Essays

The American Psychological Association

Running Head: UNIT ONE INDIVIDUAL ASSIGNMENT        Unit One Individual Assignment Author’s Full Name Affiliated Institution         Abstract The American Psychological Association (APA) guidelines provide rules for preparing manuscripts. This template provides a basic layout based upon the fifth edition of these guidelines. The APA guidelines define an abstract as a single paragraph, without indentation, that summarizes the key points of the manuscript. The purpose of the abstract is to provide the reader with a brief overview of the paper. The total length should not exceed 120 words, with each sentence written concisely. Title of Paper The body of the paper should consist of approximately 27 lines of text per page, not including headings. The following section provides two typical elements of APA manuscripts as examples in this template: reference citations and quotations. Reference Citations Per APA guidelines, all sources must be cited on a separate References page. Within the body of the paper, a pointer containing the author’s last name, year of publication, and page range within parentheses (Erickson, 2000, pp. 24-67) indicates the cited text. The author’s last name corresponds with the entry on the References page, allowing readers to look up the source of the citation. An example of a References page is located on page 5 of this template. Quotations Guidelines for quotations are based upon the length of the quote. Quotes with fewer than 40 words are quoted directly in the sentence. According to the APA, this type of quote “should be incorporated into the text and enclosed in double quotation marks.” Quotations longer than 40 words follow different guidelines. Include these quotes in an indented block. Start long quotes on a new line and indent 1 inch from the left margin. Also, double-space the lines and omit quotation marks. The Long Quote 1st and the Long Quote More styles in this Word template are provided for formatting. If you quote more than one paragraph, indent the first line of additional paragraphs by .5 inch. Include a reference citation after the closing punctuation. (Erickson, 2000, p. 34) For comprehensive style guidelines, refer to the APA online and print publications. Credit:ivythesis.typepad.com

The American Psychological Association

Running Head: UNIT ONE INDIVIDUAL ASSIGNMENT Unit One Individual Assignment Author’s Full Name Affiliated Institution Abst...

American Society

The purpose of this paper is to discuss the different issues with regards to hate crimes. It will specifically state the different definition of the word hate crime and the different kinds of hate crime prevalent in the society. It will also attempt to state important laws and regulations that punishes and penalizes perpetrators of hate crime.             Although experts commonly agree that hate crime is prevalent in American society, these same writers, lawyers, sociologists and experts do not agree on the true and total definition of hate crime. The Congress of the United States defined hate crime as a crime in which “the defendant’s conduct was motivated by hatred, bias, or prejudice, based on the actual or perceived race, color, religion, national origin, ethnicity, gender, sexual orientation or gender identity of another individual or group of individuals” (Kelly, 1998, p. 110). Meanwhile, other police organizations the United States define hate crime as criminal offenses committed against persons, property or society that is motivated, in whole or in part, by an offender’s bias against an individual’s or a group’s race, religion, ethnic/national origin, gender, age, disability or sexual orientation (Jacobs, 2001, p. 59).  In legal parlance, the term hate crime is diversely defined throughout the United States. The District of Columbia defines hate crime as crimes in which victims are selected because of a perpetrator’s bias against a victim’s perceived race, religion or ethnicity (Levin, 2001, p. 98). However this definition is different when compared to other states in the Union since these states define hate crime in which the victims are chosen because of his/her sexual orientation (Levin, 2001, p. 100). The California Penal Code section 422.6 offers a wider interpretation of hate crime, defining it as those acts “committed because of the victim’s actual or perceived race, color, religion, ancestry, national origin, disability, gender, or sexual orientation (Perl mutter, 1999, p. 210). The law against hate crimes punishes actions considered criminal by using force or threat of force in order to injure, intimidate or interfere with a person’s civil rights. State hate crime laws in the United States vary immensely in wording and in their definition of the phrase hate crime. Some laws employ a language of civil rights as can be seen in California when it adopted an “Interference with Exercise of Civil Rights” statute that states that no person, whether or not acting under the color of law, shall by force or threat of force, willfully injure, intimidate, interfere with, oppress, or threaten any other person in the free exercise or enjoyment of any right or privilege secured to him or her by the constitution or laws of this state or by the Constitution or the laws of the United States because of the other person’s race, color, religion, ancestry, national origin, or sexual orientation (Hawkins, 2003, p. 165). In contrast, some states employ the language of “ethnic intimidation or malicious harassment.” In 1983, for example, Idaho adopted a “Malicious Harassment” law that declares it shall be unlawful for any person, maliciously and with the specific intent to intimidate or harass another person because of that person’s race, color, religion, ancestry, or national origin to cause physical injury to another person, damage and destroy, or deface any real or personal property of another person (Hawkins, 2003, p. 201). Another law that is against hate crime is Bill SB 1234 passed by the California legislature. In this piece of legislation passed by the California legislature, persons of all sexual orientations are protected from hate crimes (Perry, 2005, p. 51). One strong objection with regards to this law is the act of criminalizing incitement to violence if a hate speech would result in physical harm for the protected group of individual (Perry, 2005, p. 52). This law therefore criminalizes the act of inciting violence if the probability of harm is high. Although this law is passed in the legislature, other interest groups are against this law since in their view it restricts and obstruct the practice of free speech as mandated by the First Amendment. It is said that this law against hate crimes is an attack upon the religious freedom in the United States because the law punishes the thought and ideas of an individual and not the wrong or criminal act (Perry, 2005, p. 53). This law as stated by groups that are against this hate crime law is an attack on the ability of an individual to criticize and comment on certain groups of people, In 1990, President Bush signed the Hate Crime Statistics Act that requires government officials specially the Attorney General to collect statistical data on crimes that manifest evidence of prejudice based on race, religion, sexual orientation or ethnicity (McDevitt, 2002, p. 87). Since this law is primarily concerned with data gathering, it merely requires the Attorney General to collect and to make available to the public certain statistics on hate crimes (McDevitt, 2002, p. 77). Although data collection with regards to hate crime is important it does not answer the need to develop an effective policy that can be used by the federal government in prosecuting and punishing hate crime offenders. Supporters of this law meanwhile argued that mere data collection could help law enforcement officials in measuring trends, fashioning effective responses and designing prevention strategies (McDevitt, 2002, p. 100). In 1994, Congress passed two more laws that deal with hate crime. The Violence against Women Act specifies that “all persons within the United States shall have the right to be free from crimes of violence motivated by gender” (McDevitt, 2002, p. 109). This law also allocated over .6 billion for education, rape crisis hotlines, training of justice personnel, victim services especially shelters for victims of battery and special units of police and prosecutors to deal with crimes against women (McDevitt, 2002, p. 110). Congress has also passed the Hate Crimes Sentencing Enhancement Act. This law identifies eight predicate crimes–murder; non negligent manslaughter; forcible rape; aggravated assault; simple assault; intimidation; arson; and destruction, damage, or vandalism of property–for which judges are allowed to enhance penalties of “not less than three offense levels for offenses that the finder of fact at trial determines beyond a reasonable doubt are hate crimes” (Greatened, 2003, p. 207).  For the purposes of this law, “hate crime” is defined as criminal conduct wherein “the defendant intentionally selected any victim or property as the object of the offense because of the actual or perceived race, color, religion, national origin, ethnicity, gender, disability, or sexual orientation of any person” (Greatened, 2003, p. 208). Although broad in form, this law addresses only those hate crimes that take place on federal lands and properties. Many oppose hate crime laws, stating that imposing a greater penalty on an act committed in hate would thus make hating illegal (Levin, 2001, p. 98). Some Americans feel this to be a direct infringement on First Amendment rights. Others argue that such legislation provides special status to certain protected groups. They also say that distinguishing a hate crime requires reading the mind of the accused, a dubious prospect at best and perhaps not something that should be considered when deciding on punishments. In short, critics argue that hate crime legislation criminalizes thought and also clearly violates the Fourteenth Amendment by denying “equal protection of the laws”. In addition, hate crime prosecutions seek to punish an individual for motive rather than intent. For example, the difference between first or second-degree murder is intent, not motive (Kelly, 1998, p. 100). It is also said that hate crime laws are largely unnecessary, as a crime committed solely on the basis of hatred of a group would already be punished harshly by the justice system. If no argument could be made in mitigation, thereby reducing the culpability of the offender or the seriousness of the offence, the offender would be sufficiently punished to the full extent of the law. Others support hate crime laws, stating that by enacting them individuals would face greater discouragement from committing hate crimes. They also point out that all laws are subjective, and that if society can determine that one crime deserves more punishment than another then it can also determine what motivations deserve harsher punishments (Jacobs, 2001, p. 129). Some supporters reason that one who can be moved to violence by hatred of a class of people presents greater danger to society than one who merely hates an individual. Their position states that if normal punishments are inadequate deterrents, then additional punishments may deter crimes motivated by hate. Other proponents of hate crime legislation consider that politically correct or socially sanctioned hate is a problem, and that legislation will need to explicitly cover those often deemed less worthy of protection (Perl mutter, 1999, p. 59). Another argument sometimes advanced by supporters of hate-crime laws are that violent acts motivated by political or similar reasons are characteristic of earlier, less enlightened societies, and toleration would result in regress. Proponents point out that it is not unusual to make thoughts or states of mind elements of a crime (Perl mutter, 1999, p. 45). Credit:ivythesis.typepad.com

American Society

The purpose of this paper is to discuss the different issues with regards to hate crimes. It will specifically state the diffe...

Sample Essay Fiminine Mystique in the American Culture

Feminine Mystique in the American Culture Introduction             Under the American culture, women are expected to perform their domestic roles. As such they become enslaved of domestication and most often are deprived of the opportunity to find their identity. Women who merely settled for their housewives roles manifest the predicament of American women. This is the reason why the Friedan’s ideas and imagery of women as dehumanized victims was embraced by Americans. It truthfully depicted their personal lives and can be considered as an effective tool for liberation.             However, as the new generation of women emerged, they came to realize the need to engage in activities outside marriage and motherhood to find self identity. Increasingly, women are breaking out from the norms and expectations of their society. The post war period illustrated the changing role of women as they become wage earning individuals. As they integrate roles outside the family, the American culture and society has been reshaped. Still, such changes have contributed little in improving the social and economic status of women. Even now, contemporary women are faced with the conflicting terms of performing multiple roles. As they fulfill the desire to develop their potentials they are somewhat conflicted with their domestic responsibilities. In this sense, contemporary women are conflicted between the society’s expectation and their personal desire to improve their identity.     Familial Roles of Women The enormous consensus on the propriety of marrying has confined women to domestic roles in the American culture. The social penalties of not marrying for women weighed heavily for them than that for men. American women worry about the anxieties that are brought by spinsterhood. After the war, single women are left with limited educational and occupational opportunities and thus marriage appeared to be the most viable option for them. Both sexes are drawn to the aisle bowing to uphold social conventions. For women, marriage has become a legitimate path out of their home. Young women saw marriage as the logical route to get out of their own family (Weiss24). The analogy of comfortable concentration camps to women has been accepted as a description of the lives of American women. Such analogy confirmed the understanding of women of their own predicament. As Friedan wrote, “the women who ‘adjust’ as housewives, who grow up wanting to be ‘just a housewife,’ are in as much danger as the millions who walked to their own death in the concentration camps…. “(qtd in Fermaglich205) .The central argument was the American cultural outlets including women’s magazines, colleges and advertising industry exalting the feminine mystique as mothers and housewives at home. Such mystique has suppressed the growth of women by confining them to their homes and to domestic lives. Only through the resistance of such mystique and the breaking away from the life of domesticity can American women grow as human beings. Friedan’s ideas are eagerly embraced by many women and believed that her image of a dehumanized victim depict their personal lives. These women described their housewives role as “victims”, “trapped” or “servile”. The arguments presented by Friedan are effective tool for liberation. It spoke truthfully enough to inspire women at that time and since (Fermaglich205). In the final chapter “Progressive Dehumanization: The Comfortable Concentration Camp”, it was argued that women are denied of their humanity by their domestication. Friedan claimed suburban women as dependent, passive and childlike. They gave up their adult frame of reference by living at the lower human level of food and things. Adult capabilities are not required of with such work since it is endless, monotonous and unrewarding (Fermaglich205). Moreover, dependent women are likely to become parasitic who preyed upon their husbands and children. Like inmates of dehumanized concentration camps, American women have come to internalize their inferiority and turned their aggression to their loved ones and even to themselves.             The boredom and bitterness of mothers was eventually sensed by the new generation of women. They moved towards a radical movement as the result of their resistance to the same roles. The feminist novel Burning Questions by Alex Kats Schulman (1978) depicted the generation gap that separated the sixties generation from their parents. The heroine of the novel was provoked by the shallow conformity and the emptiness of materialism that thrive in her middle class suburban family. Ultimately, she explored the burning questions of her lifetime by joining a women’s group (Kerbed et al. 313). These women as well as the elders of the baby boom formed the women’s liberation movement. They found themselves confronting the contradictions of their aspirations and the subordinate status with men in movement and in their jobs. Young women whatever their age have joined the women’s liberation movement with their personal acquaintance with the power of the Feminine Mystique. This may be in the form of their mothers or the cultural symbol of motherhood during the fifties.             Moreover, daughters find the generation gap as more complicated as they reject the world their mother have lived to live out dreams of their own. As Friedan discovered, many mothers have lost their sense of identity and lived through the lives of their husband and children. Consumed by their family lives, they have forfeited careers and political ideals for the comfort of their homes. Some of them have not even to make dreams for their selves. Because of this, daughters of the fifties have come to recognize the need for independent identity which challenged the feminine mystique’s emphasis on motherhood. The fear of being an ordinary housewife can then be considered as the main drive behind female generation gap (Kerbed et al.316). Increasingly, women discovered the need to find a self identity and break out from social conventions. In the Beth Bailey’s book, “From Front Porch to the Back Seat: Courtship in 20th Century America, dating elicited shock when it emerged after the turn of the century. Until that decade, women are pursued by men through courtship. Men typically court a woman by calling on her and her parents at their homes. The intent during those days was marriage and the courtship was so structured. Numerous rules govern everything from the proper amount of time to be spent and the appropriate topics for conversations (tad in Judge, 1997). However, such procedure changed with the birth of cities in the early period of the 20th century. Children were lured by the excitement and the freedom associated with the cities. Thus the power went to the women who are once controlled by the particulars of the courting call to the man (Judge10).             Such changes are manifestations of the desire to liberate women’s role in the society. The ambitions to achieve identity became associated with doing something outside marriage and motherhood. With this, the role of American women in the family and the society had its turning point during the early sixties. Middle class American women form 1950s to the 70s turned to become wage earning to contribute to the family life. They have reshaped the American family, the labor force and the society in general. More and more women until their late fifties became more likely to be employed (Weiss 50). Despite the early marriages and the expectations for their domestic roles, women integrated a role outside their homes into their family lives. The employment of women had important ramification not only in the workplace but in the American society in general. Aside from the better paid industrial positions paid to women, hiring during the wartime loosened the cultural barriers against women employees. However, the employment advances during the war did not at all improve the status of women as workers. Neither did it result to a lasting commitment with the government to solve the dilemmas of working mothers. Moreover, women are guided by conflicting terms. Like everybody else, they want to develop their personalities to the full while some want a home and develop a family. For women, marriage and child bearing ahs become the main source of identity and prestige. The society through husbands, friends and kin dictates that women must be paragons of domesticity. While they can be career oriented, they still confront conflicting expectations (Moen 37). The dilemma they faced is not employment but how to combine it with motherhood. Since they continue to be the principal caretakers for the children, the problem is how to mesh their familial roles in the course of their lives. It remains debatable whether contemporary women who combine these roles are better off than the traditional full time housewives of the 1950s. Conclusion             The domestic and passive roles of women as stay home mother have been in existence in the American culture. Because of this, women are regarded as subordinates and are confined to perform activities within the marriage and motherhood roles. It is no surprise that women have settled merely to these housewife roles. However, the new generation of women has shown resistance to these same roles. Women are increasingly realizing the need to break the enslaved status they hold by confronting the contradictions of their dreams with their subordinate status. Thus, the emphasis of the feminine mystique on motherhood is challenged. Ultimately, contemporary women still face the challenge of juggling their roles in the family in their quest for self identity. Credit:ivythesis.typepad.com

Sample Essay Fiminine Mystique in the American Culture

Feminine Mystique in the American Culture Introduction Under the American culture, women are expected to perform their domesti...

New media and international communications term paper sample

New media and international communications: a journal analysis   PART A What is the central argument presented by the author’s)?             The central argument presented by the author is the veracity of globalization as a term that is often vague and used to represent many different things. In the discussion, globalization has been clarified and described in the following perspectives: Economic globalization, Global village, Cultural imperialism, and Globalization. Economic globalization refers to increased economic activity (money and goods) that transcends geographical barriers, integration of international financial markets and technological infrastructures, and dominance of ‘free trade’ as key factor affecting economies. It also associated with deregulation of industries and increased mobility of people. Meanwhile, global village is rooted on the idea of particularly on the ability of electronic media to connect and show people and the world. Cultural imperialism, on the other hand, pertains to a prevailing ‘global culture’ that said to developed in a common culture (e.g. the West modernity or American cultural values). Lastly, ‘glocalisation’ is associated to the preference of people to their local cultures and production of local versions of global products. This is attributed to the strong influence and intention of preserving local cultural identity.             After providing a comprehensive discussion of globalization, the author described the current global setting as a space of flows and identified the significant role of information in global economy. He pointed out that what should be taken into further attention are the origin, destination, and application of information, and who controls it. It ended with the personal challenge on identifying the extent of effect of globalization, particularly on international information flows, to the reader.   What is your opinion of the reading? The facts presented in the reading are nothing but factual and ignites further understanding on what is globalization, its applications, its extent of effect, and the conditions on information and international communications. The central arguments are believable and supported by detailed examples and existing conditions. It is actually pointed out that some occurrences that are categorically considered to be aspects or kinds of globalization are not. It is because such already existed before globalization was popularized. The advocacies of globalization are often purported to be an overstatement of the ongoing global development. Some global conditions are overly described leading to misconceptions or the so-called fallacies or myths of globalization. The reading conveys an evident understanding that the term ‘globalisation’ should not be used in general expression or language rather specifically used. On the aspect of space of flows, it is very outstanding that the author is able to point out the essentialities of information flow. Considering the global setting, information flow is crucial. It is because the world we live in is considered as a network society that is fundamentally about flow including capital, information, technology, organizational interactions, images, sounds, and symbols, and other factors. The discussion on this aspect is visionary in nature as it aims to include development of Third World countries particularly on their participation to information flow and international communications. Policies for regulations is sought so as to control the effect of information flows into economic and cultural independence of each country. The thought of space of flows is beneficial provided that it is used in good faith and purpose of global convenience and avoiding any spaces for flaws. In terms of criticism, the aspect of cultural imperialism particularly to the example of Westernized or Americanized cultural system is old-fashioned. Provided that such system is influential in modern-day instances, it is quite restricted to refer to the phenomenon of cultural imperialism. There will never be a cohesive global culture because of the fact that people are created differently. Diversity is an important attribute that should be included in the discussion of cultural imperialism. Cultural diversity is innate to given societies. What is important is how people, amidst diversity, acknowledge individual culture and have a unified cultural sensibility. All in all, the reading is very enlightening especially on the term globalization. Another outstanding feature in the discussions made is the ability of the author to integrate the significant role of information and communications to international setting and specific examples. The concept of globalization in today’s international communication is clearer provided that this reading gave accurate and comprehensive discussion and appropriate cases in point.     <li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify"> Is the world heading towards a harmonious ‘global village’, or is it turning into ‘global ghettos’? That is, is culture and society more divided along social, class, race and ethnic, gender and political lines than before? What role do you think media technologies have in the development of this global framework? </li>   Looking on the reading provided, the world is heading towards a harmonious ‘global village’ as it seeks for a beneficial and advantageous information flow and supported by the space of flows. However, it is pointed out that there can never be real ‘global village’. Diversity is a great impediment. The idea of ‘global village’ may be elusive yet it can be used in line with global development towards the common good. Culture and society is able to communicate using different media. The elements of social, class, race and ethnic, gender and political lines are presented and subject for communicative discussion. Issues on these elements are tackled using international communication materials and vehicles. Media technologies are also contributory to the global development. Although the creation of a ‘global village’ is considered elusive, the role of media technologies is very pervasive. Media distribute information to all corners of the world. Every modern society that has access to any communication devices is affected by media. In developing a global framework (i.e. global village), media technologies are prime instruments. They can break and make, establish and destroy, or support and oppose global conditions as well as frameworks.   <li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify"> Is the internet the most pervasive form of globalization today? What other technologies can be considered global? Is the world wide web (WWW) really world-wide or global? Or is it widening the gap between the information haves and have-nots, known in the internet age as the ‘digital divide’?  </li> Yes. The internet is wide in terms of its coverage and access. Because of this attributes, it is the most pervasive form of globalization today if the popular definition of globalization is used. According to  (2001), the ongoing culture of transformation facilitated by globalization affect almost every human activity by means digital or technology intervention. Other technologies include mobile phones and other technological innovations that change the global landscape. Experts believe that technologies may have considerable potential to reach and engage opinion leaders who influence the thinking and behavior of others (1996;  2002). The  is both world-wide and global. Because of its powerful prospective, the cyberspace including the Internet certainly changes how people live people and views the society (1995). Although technologies like the internet play a key role in modern societies, for example on surveillance societies, Abe (2004) warns that it does not determine how societies are shaped because the result of their influence is mediated and articulated by social and political factors. Whether or not the internet is beneficial to those who used it and futile to those who do not have access to it, it is undeniably the most popular, widely used, and pervasive form as well as example of globalisation.     <li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify"> Do you think that globalization is inevitable? Can you locate resistance to globalization? What are some ways in which people, activist groups, or even national governments protect or insulate themselves from global imports? Cite examples. </li>   Possibly, globalization can be avoided. Take for example, the Amish minority group distributed principally throughout Pennsylvania, Ohio, and Indiana. But in some places, they can also be found separately. The estimated population is at about 60,000 (as of 2000). They are purely agrarian, utilize horsepower for agricultural work and transportation, and wear rather somber but distinctive dress. Amish strive to cultivate humility and simple living. It is their belief that nature is a garden and man was the caretaker, not an exploiter ( 2000). They are not exposed to modern development and technology because their culture does not allow them in doing so. The most significant characteristics making the Amish people different are their norms. They think of themselves as God’s plain people who have always been offended by outsiders. It is considered to be a taboo when someone use or posses many conveniences. It is a part of the profane, ungodly world outside (1950).   With this kind of resistance to culture, development is impossible. The Amish people have been able to maintain their island of pre-industrial living in the midst of the most industrialized society in the world ( 2001). Although this is just a negligible aspect of the world population, their culture serves as the main impediment of globalization.   <li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify"> Do you think that your local culture is being destroyed or improved by globalization? What signs are there that this is the case? Cite them. Is there any way for small countries/minority populations to counter globalization? Will the use of technology help minority cultures survive? </li>   Either. Globalization can destroy and improve my local culture. In terms of improvement, my local culture is communicated all throughout the world by using the elements of global communications. Other people are able to learn my culture and can assimilate it. The popularization and the assimilation of my local culture by other people is a clear evidence or sign of improvement through globalization. On the contrary, it is destroyed when other local cultures are able to penetrate into my local culture. People in my local community are exposed into foreign cultural factors brought about by globalization. Given the significant duration in my local community, it will also be assimilated by the host culture. Even if it is just an assimilated culture, it is not innate to the local culture thus will have a significant effect on the existing local culture. This will also lead to change of culture. Like the previously mentioned example of the Amish minority group, they counter globalization. Their ways of living define their culture and cultural identity. The existing resistance to technology use as well as other forces of globalization will destroy their cultural identity, thus making technology a detrimental element. If technology is used in relation to this group, the ability to relate information to other people in all corners of the world is the only advantageous way it can offer.   <li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify"> How important is international communication in your workplace or personal life? Describe its significance. Which technologies enable this to happen? Do the nature of these technologies affect the processes, practices and extent of this communication? Describe how. </li>   International communication is a very important element of my workplace and personal life because of its ability to provide useful information in doing my job and other responsibilities. The knowledge that I accumulate through having access to several international communications like the internet and television serve as asset on my personal life. Although I have no exact idea on how these technologies affect the processes, practices and extent of international communication, I am certain that is serve as advantageous on my part as a worker and a person who lives in a modern and considerably ‘globalised’ society.                             PART B   Give an overview of the argument of the reading.             The reading chosen deals with the concept of globalization in terms of international communications and information flows. Specifically, the central argument presented by the author is the veracity of globalization as a term that is often vague and used to represent many different things. In the discussion, globalization has been clarified and described in the following perspectives: Economic globalization, Global village, Cultural imperialism, and Globalization. Economic globalization refers to increased economic activity (money and goods) that transcends geographical barriers, integration of international financial markets and technological infrastructures, and dominance of ‘free trade’ as key factor affecting economies. It also associated with deregulation of industries and increased mobility of people. Meanwhile, global village is rooted on the idea of McLuhan particularly on the ability of electronic media to connect and show people and the world. Cultural imperialism, on the other hand, pertains to a prevailing ‘global culture’ that said to developed in a common culture (e.g. the West modernity or American cultural values). Lastly, ‘glocalisation’ is associated to the preference of people to their local cultures and production of local versions of global products. This is attributed to the strong influence and intention of preserving local cultural identity.             Globalization, I believe, is a dynamic term that is used to illustrate the changes in societies and the world economy that result from dramatic increase of international trade and cultural exchange. In literatures, there has been a continuous debate on the exact definition of globalization. The consensus on providing description on whether or not it is a process results to opportunity for debate among social scientists, policymakers, researchers, and scholars. As  (2003) claims, globalization is problematic because it includes a variety of ‘big issues’ affecting modern communities. Globalization is always tagged in relation to current conditions and events happening in most countries that create significant effects to all human race ( 2000; 2000; 2000). Acknowledging globalization as a social change that is mainly characterized by an increase in connections among societies and their given attributes like political integration, economic cooperation, technological and communication innovations, and so on, globalization created lasting effects to modern societies and the world.  (2000) described it “as a complex and often contradictory process, that is centered around three major regional groupings of states: “Europe,” “America,” and “Asia.  (2003) specifically defines the term by considering a general understanding that it is the horizontal and vertical economic, political, and social integration of countries. Kim and Weaver (2003) stated that it has invaded people’s consciousness as evidences of globalization see it everywhere. Because of this contextual debate, the reading is able to illuminate on the different uses of the term globalization.             After providing a comprehensive discussion of globalization, the author described the current global setting as a space of flows and identified the significant role of information in global economy. He pointed out that what should be taken into further attention are the origin, destination, and application of information, and who controls it. It ended with the personal challenge on identifying the extent of effect of globalization, particularly on international information flows, to the reader. Again, this discussion relates to the important role of information in building societies and its people.   How these ideas interact with the approaches taken in the other units?             These ideas extend the understanding and clarification of arguments presented in other approaches taken in the other units. It also provides an opportunity for critical examination of facts particularly on the part of readers like me. It may support or oppose each discussion yet in the end it convinces what idea is more applicable to specific situations. Like on this case, globalization and international communications are linked as it commonly projects a powerful image of a catalyst of change and development provided the use of technologies in all areas of the world. globalization is not only limited to a single application. There are such things as globalization in economics, or could be cultural imperialism, the challenge of the development of a ‘global village’, and even the process of globalization. Given the ideas in the chosen reading, the relationship to other approaches in the other units are more on exploratory and contributory in effect. If linked with each other, all reading boil down to providing clear and complete understanding of the current effects of global trends, technologies, and processes to our lives as people who lives in a small world – after all.   Credit:ivythesis.typepad.com

New media and international communications term paper sample

New media and international communications: a journal analysis PART A What is the central argument presented by the author’s)? ...

Media, Culture and Society

Media, Culture and Society   As the primary venue for public information, regular news reports mediated by print and broadcast communications are considered and recognized for their democratic function that enables the public to make personal and communal stand on issues that the society faces. Contemporary studies in the field of mass communication especially the focus in the discipline of journalism will inherently provide descriptions and explanations on the structure of the society, politics and culture of the country.      (1999) described news stories as “consistent rational system and abstracted interpretation derived from the chaos of a given moment and filtered through the stages of fixed, editorial necessity”. He further claimed that news reports are organized artificially and fully mediated by the culture it supports and not ordained by reality nor necessarily complete descriptions of each. Like other institutions, the practice of journalism has undergone series of development processes which led to patterns of change and adjustments that are closely interconnected to the technological and cultural history of the community whose rules and modes of production are at least partly based on the greater society’s more general pattern of change.   PHXnews posted the success of the national school choice movement in their effort which led to the increased number of students who can avail of the benefits of the program this coming academic year.  The news reported that the targeted K-12 school choice bills passed 16 legislative houses in 10 states this year which made the particular program a national issue at present.  The states of Arizona, Florida, Ohio and Utah enacted new and expanded the school choice programs while other states including Pennsylvania and Minnesota are still waiting for the results of their appeals.  “Ohio’s two-year budget includes a new statewide program for 14,000 general education children to leave public schools in academic emergency to attend private schools, and an improvement of two existing programs – expanding the Cleveland Scholarship Program to include 11th and 12th grade and making permanent the Autism Scholarship Program and removing the cap”.  This year it was estimated that 84,000 school children will be able to exercise the influence of the program and next year, it was expected that this number will further increase by 25% projecting more than 105,000 students   The school choice voucher program appears to be state specific and dependent on the number of cases of poor performing public schools.  The scenario will also be dependent on the number of private schools that will take in the students from the specified public schools as well as the number of students under the school choice program that they are willing to house in.  Legal issues are reviewed for the possibility of exceeding the limit of the cap that was provided by the state law.  The case of Milwaukee students and the state of Wisconsin is a clear example of such case.    In the Miami Valley, all 33 schools on that list were in Montgomery County — 18 in the  district, two in Jefferson Twp., one in Trotwood and eight charter schools.  If those schools rate poorly again on this year’s report cards and next year, they would have to offer their students the option to use vouchers to transfer to private schools.  If many  schools continue in academic emergency and public vouchers come here in large numbers, it could be especially helpful to Catholic schools and other religious private schools, which have suffered enrollment hits as the charter movement exploded since 1999.  The increase in the number of eligible students, however, post a great challenge specifically to Wisconsin as the epicenter of the voucher movement.  In the same news article, it was also stated the fact that Wisconsin’s law caps voucher enrollment at 15 percent of Milwaukee schoolchildren and Democratic Gov.  has repeatedly blocked efforts to raise the limit   At present, we are experiencing a period of experimentation wherein media service providers and encoders are seeking new avenues to financially support their businesses just like what practitioners of journalism experience in defining online journalism norms, practices and ().  (2000) also verified that online communication used for news viewing focus mainly on name brands known from television  or print  It is interesting to note, however, that there are relatively few number of studies and researches that were conducted which address the range of which commercial pressures of the new media environment, induced by technological innovations, are transforming media firm and journalist routines, as well as shaping traditional news values (1999,  2000;1998; 2000;  2000).   News gathering is the business of reporting, of finding out and recording of key elements and information for a news story. Different reporters engage in various techniques and means of gathering information for the completion of their stories. The medium in which the news story will be channeled is also considered in the ways of collecting news information since different the different media forms call and serve for different audience and readers. But generally, reporters share almost the same methods of gathering news information through first hand or personal sources and secondary data which are valid and reliable.      (1999) provided five ways used most frequently by journalist in producing their news articles. These news information gathering techniques include off-the-record, for background only, not for direct quotation, hold for release and private gatherings. Off-the-record news gathering usually takes place in small gatherings or interviews wherein the news sources ask the reporter to make succeeding statements of the record or give the journalists the option to look for other informants instead. However, there are instances when phony off-the-record- remarks used by the reporter as background to the story he or she is writing making sure that the meanings of the word used by the informant were clearly understood.    (1972) and (1997) recognize the effect of the assumptions held by authors regarding the ‘passive’ position of their readers on the content of the messages that could either contribute to or detract from the credibility of the source. Similar to the claims of rhetorical criticism, critical literacy “complements media literacy in particular as it offers a way to examine how media messages are designed for certain groups, why some media texts might be more effective than others, what issues are raised by media coverage, and whose interests are served by media content’ ( 2002). Hence, the shared values and lifestyle dictated by the way of presenting particular ideologies to the society could either be beneficial or harmful to the way the general public will decide the fate of their communities especially in the democratic social structure and policy governance.       In regard to discourse about new technologies, we need to consider what claims are credible, what evidence is accurate, and which spokespersons are truly acting in the public interest. We also should recognize explicitly how advocates and writers use narratives, myths, forms of language, and visual images to tell their stories. Through critical examination of these features, we can begin to see what ideologies are at work and whose interests are being served by the discourse. This is an important step to a thorough understanding of the issues at stake in the formation of technology policy and of how decisions on these issues may affect us and our lives.    Credit:ivythesis.typepad.com

Media, Culture and Society

Media, Culture and Society As the primary venue for public information, regular news reports mediated by print and broadcast communica...

Media Studies Essay

To what extend have Hindu values and ideologies dominated the representational agenda of Indian cinema?               Cinema was first introduced in India in July 7, 1896, when the Lumiere Brother’s Cinematographe showed six soundless short films in the Watson Hotel in Bombay.               Indian cinema is named Bollywood. This name is conflation of Bombay, the old name of Mumbai, and Hollywood, the center of the United State film industry. Bollywood is also commonly referred to as Hindi cinema. The Bollywood industry is usually tha largest in terms of films produced and office receipts.               The first Indian film concerned with honor, sacrifice and mighty deeds. For in that period many “mythologicals” were made and took India by storm.               In the 1930’s, Indian films adopted a modernist outlook essentially converging of society, addressing social differences of caste, class and the relations between the sexes. The most important film in the period, Devdas (1935), the director created a tale of love frustrated by social distinction and masculine ineffectuality. This film focused on indecision, frustration and a focus on failure and longing rather than on achievement.             Indian cinema has made a unique contribution towards evolving a new popular culture by reconstructing the traditional performative themes and idioms, using western narrative forms and positioning implicitly in the narrative many contemporary tensions and encoded messages of social change. It provided an intimate cinematic interpretation of Indian identity in its sentiments, outlook and diversity.   Indian Cinema has built its narrative around the notion of enlightenment, taking up a well-informed discourse on the human connection with the metaphysical, at the same time presenting a sound critique of the orthodox worldview, age-old social hierarchy and the social tensions and suffering. Some of the major concerns of Indian literature were also incorporated in their films. During the classical period when film-making was at its highest artistic peak, it fulfilled an important social function by translating the main agenda of Indian society at that time by interpreting human suffering in an inequitable society, and to release and reinstate the cultural traditions from the influences of the recent colonial past.   The basic emotional basis or structure of Indian films has its roots in living a life in the puritan, sublime love through a cycle of union and separation. The protagonist was presented essentially as an introvert, a restless soul in search of his identity in love and suffering. But the large part of the cinema is characterized by the reflection of internal suffering of a nation at large. The film-makers submerge the nation’s pain in highly appealing story-telling, which interpreted the uprootment and loss in different ways and help people incoming terms with it.   Hindu films act as the interface between the traditions of Indian society and of the disturbing Western intrusions. The function of Hindu film is to externalize an inner psychological conflict and handle the inner passion generated by social and political processes as problems created by events and persons. Bollywood films are usually musicals. Movies are made with song and dance number. Music and song form an integral part of Indian cinema.   Bollywood films are filled with themes of jealousy and unrequited love. The three elements common to many Hindi movies are wealth, love triangles and references to caste system. Wealth, love and caste are prominent in Bollywood because these elements are missing in real life of the majority of Indians.   Over half of Indians are povertly-stricken and it would be a relief to see wealth in the film. Also, Indian films seldom show the characters working while in real life Indian people are known for their good work and ethics and high standards of education.   Love is also popular in Indian cinema. In real life of Indian people, romance is not typical for marriages are still arranged. Marrying for love symbolizes freedom to make one’s own decisions. Even the people acting as poor people look richer than most people of the status they play in the movie.   The characters also of the movies are light skin for it represents wealth because they don’t have to do the manual labor which is associated with lower castes and darker skin color.   Films influence public opinions on matters relating to nationalism, social reforms and war. Films began to reflect the dynamics of the contemporary social and political currents. It brought about a political awakening and consciousness. Films in India have themes on political expressions and social reforms. In the films of 1930’s, injustice in women was the frequent theme and the choice in marriage also has been a theme of the films in this period. The tradition of socially conscious cinema slowly developing. These films were not mere entertainment but were charged with nationalistic ideas. Indian cinema was being used for political propaganda. Cinema’s close interaction with politics is one of the dominant characteristics Indian cinemas.  This happens when British government attempt to prevent the depiction of political propaganda in films and tighten the censorship. During this time, the popular entertainment was commercial drama. When sound was introduced in cinema, the politicized, nationalistic group of drama artists moved into the world of films. They brought with them into cinema their ideology and a penchant for political activism. Patriotic films were produced and cinema became an instrument of political propaganda. Many film artists began taking direct part in politics and lent their charisma to the nationalist cause. The modern image of Bollywood is of fantasy and glitz, with a ‘disco-lifestyle’ of glamour and wealth. On the surface everything looks very simple, but the core values of these films remain immovably tied to 5000 years of religious tradition – most of it Hindu.  In India, religious thinking and values surround you in everything you experience – from the saffron robed holy men in the streets, to the sacred cows which wander freely through the traffic. Religion is so much a part if Indian life. Religion and a code of practice through religious belief is present in nearly every theme. In most Bollywood films there will be scenes built around people praying to the gods, in the temple or at home, with stories structured around grand themes of sacrifice and morality. At the heart of them, it is the struggle between Good and Evil. Of course, without songs, there would be no Bollywood! Music is an essential part of Indian cinema due to the tradition of the narrative style. The great epics of the Ramayana and the Mahabharata were both written in verse and memorised by singing through the ages. The origins of Indian cinema were built on the dramatization of the great mythological epics of the Ramayana and Mahabharata. The pioneer of early Indian cinema was Dhundiraj Govind Phalke, who realised the popular appeal of having Lord Krishna or Ram as your onscreen hero. His debut film Raja Harishchandra (1913) set the trend for mythological films which were to dominate the silent era and form the basis of all plots to come. A story with a moral at the end is necessary in a Bollywood film. Indian cinema has largely survived on the support of the rural and semi-urban masses. They prefer simple good verses evil scenarios, drawn from the ancient mythology. Glorification of the family, individual sacrifice for the sake of others, respect for age and authority, and the long-term futility of crime are the basis for plots in Indian cinema. Indeed in these early days of film in the 20s and 30s, the cinema was very much an extension of the temple. Great cinema tents would travel from village to village and be set up next to the temple. When people had finished worshiping the gods in the temple they would then go next door into the cinema and see their gods on the screen. In time films moved away from the simple dramatization of mythological tales, but have nevertheless rigidly held onto core values and morals. Much of the accounts and triumphs of Krishna or Ram are now translated into metaphors acted out by the screen hero towards his lover, family or whatever his general situation may be. Film producers and directors are adept at making things look simple on the surface, but there are layers of cultural and religious codes which lie beneath, informing the way characters behave with each other, the way they dress, or even what they are called. If a character is called ‘Vijay’ then the audience will know he is a Hindu. If he is called ‘Akbar’, then they will know he is a Muslim.   The Hindu-Muslim divide has been the most explosive political issue in the sub-continent since India gained her independence from Britain in 1947 – resulting in riots and bloodshed. Thousands died following the destruction of a mosque in Ayodhya in 1992 and from communal riots in Gujarat just 2 years ago. For Bollywood, Hindu-Muslim relations have dominated plot lines for decades.   Bollywood prides itself on its claim to transcend barriers of religion, culture and caste. In this industry people of all faiths and backgrounds work together in communal harmony – from the big-screen stars to the lighting director to the make-up artists .   India’s recent history is a sign of cinema’s growing maturity and a healthy move away from the morass of enervating escapism into which visual entertainment seems to have irredeemably fallen.             The trend suggests, in a particular genre some themes remained dominant and many movies were made based on a pet theme. For instance in the fifties and the sixties it was the poverty, squalor and umpteen hardship that formed the base material of the movies. At that time the audience connected themselves with the sorrows and the miseries around them with the protagonist on screen. In seventies and eighties the trend changed to plots that portrayed angry young man’s fight against the injustices of the society. The new recipe in nineties that’s struck upon is to ‘sex up the script,’ pump up with item songs of semi clad women; throw up some ‘Baywatch’ shots on the road, make the female dress and undress, over doze it with heavy necking scenes. The New Indian cinema is almost always concerned with the common man. The heroes are not supermen with extraordinary ambition, who have to rise from poverty, tame the rich girl and fight the evil landlord, but ordinary men and women acting under the pressures of ordinary living. It is a form of individualization. Bollywood movies are with their distinctive approach to storytelling. Usually woven together by six songs and at least two lavish dance numbers, the movies are about unconditional love, the conflict between fathers and sons, revenge, redemption, survival against the odds, the importance of honor and self-respect, and the mission to uphold religious and moral values.   Indian cinema is unique to Indian culture and history, its energetic style, the emotional appeal of its themes, the glamorous lifestyles portrayed, the enduring melodies and lush settings, all contribute to its increasing popularity worldwide.   Credit:ivythesis.typepad.com

Media Studies Essay

To what extend have Hindu values and ideologies dominated the representational agenda of Indian cinema? Cinema was first ...

THEORIES OF MASS MEDIA

Theories of the Mass Media             Mass media are channels of communication through which messages flow, produced by a few for consumption by many people. Further, it is the main ways of mass communication. Of all the existing means of mass communication, it is only the press that has spawned a set of theories to explain and to justify its actions and its purposes. ( 1994)             Moreover, the press has gone through many significant changes since ideas about press freedom were first discussed. New forms of journalism have developed. There have been changes in printing techniques, changes in ownership, and even changes in perceptions of the role of the newspaper within society. Radio and television have also usurped some of its duties. ( 1994)             Despite the enormity of these changes and the social, economic and political transformation of the societies within which these changes have taken place, the concepts most often used to justify the existence and role of the press and the media still retain significance today. ( 1994)              Discussion of the roles and duties of the media in the contemporary scene must inevitably go beyond earlier and rather limited comments on the press. Nevertheless, one must not underestimate the importance of earlier ideas about press freedom, nor must one underestimate the extent to which these ideas still reside within more complex statements about the mass media. ( 1994)   Freedom of the Press             The press acquired an educational role and the role of watchdog.  It was the fourth estate taking governments to task and protecting the public interest as well as representing public opinion. It could also help create a politically literate society. In all these intricate ways, the press became the channel par excellence through which political debate was to be conducted and political society came into existence and survived. The nature of political representation and the meaning of public opinion would all change as a consequence of the existence of the press. ( 1994)             However, in practice, few of the conceptual embellishments of the idea of the freedom of the press proved to be any more than occasional glimpses of what an ideal press ought to be like. It could no more act as a watchdog than a critical examiner of the actions of politicians or government because it was closely and inextricably tied to both. The newspaper was anything but an independent, responsible, oppositional/adversarial force in society. ( 1994)              Hence, it was a politically committed and attached organ. Newspapers were thus failing to represent fully public opinion. Therefore, the concept of the freedom of the press must be examined in the first instance with reference to the structural and organizational independence of the press from the state. ( 1994)             Today’s press is structurally and organizationally outside the control of the state. It daily confronts pressures and constraints which limit its freedom. Like all other institutions, it cannot enjoy absolute freedom. The limits on the freedom of the press are often overlooked yet their consequences may be just as severe as those which the state can impose. ( 1994)             Since press freedom is never absolute, there can be no real way of guaranteeing that the mass media will represent a wide range of views. For as soon as a news organization is established within a competitive economic system, it has to exercise choices about what sort of medium it is, what it does and for whom it does it. These choices inevitably narrow its vision and place it in a certain niche in the media market. ( 1994) THE PRESS IN THE AGE OF THE MEDIA             Despite the changing circumstances within which the press now operates and much evidence with which to discredit its own claims to legitimacy as the fourth estate, there has been no serious attempt to reconsider the theories of the press and the media generally as they relate to the remaining years of this century. The press today lives alongside the power of television and competes with it for allegiance and influence. Yet the ideas used to justify the existence and work of the media, such as the freedom of the press are ideas whose true meanings are in the memories of past struggles in very different circumstances. ( 1994)             One finds the libertarian and social responsibility models of the press in those states where freedom to publish and the freedom of the press are established. On the other hand, where there are no such freedoms, one finds the authoritarian and Soviet models of the press. ( 1994)             The libertarian model is identified with the struggle for a free press. As this model had some rather obvious shortcomings in that it identified the freedom to publish with individual property rights of purchase and sale of newspaper titles, it was necessary to overlay the libertarian position with an element of social conscience. As a result, the social responsibility theory was born. Newspapers remained the property of their owners. They could still be bought and sold in the marketplace but owners and newspapers were now credited with obligations to society-obligations to provide information, to allow a diversity of views to be printed, to encourage the best and most professional of journalistic activity so as to pursue truth and knowledge. ( 1994)             Severe criticism of these ideas did little to detract from the belief that even a sickly press was preferable to the Soviet and authoritarian theories. These contrasted the Western models with the sorts of restrictions that could be and were applied to the media in other political systems: the media were not free to publish, the expression of opinion was controlled, the party/government could dictate the content of the media, and the essential freedoms associated with the Western models were obviously absent. ( 1994)             These four theories of the press have featured in numerous discussions about the role of the press. Although these theories could not easily be deployed in the real world, they did serve a valuable purpose as condensations of patterns of thought about the media. On the one hand, they proposed the creation of a press/media where no regulations restrained freedoms and, on the other hand, they pointed to the undesirable nature of regulations. ( 1994)     Credit:ivythesis.typepad.com

THEORIES OF MASS MEDIA

Theories of the Mass Media Mass media are channels of communication through which messages flow, produced by a few for consum...

Discuss the political and economic implications of the trend toward concentration of media power among a few conglomerates. Give some useful examples..

Media Power Concentration: the Political and Economic Implications             Media play a pivotal role in our every day life. We depend primarily on it for the information and entertainment and for other purposes that has to do with our day-to-day operations.             Media is such a powerful entity. It can make and unmake a president. It can create and destroy an image, individual or organization. It can even tell and direct us what to do against what not to do and what to believe against what not to believe for. Truly, we can’t deny the power of media because it is so clear, transcending within boundaries of time and changes.             The concentration of media power among a few conglomerates is the trend prevalent in the media industry. In broadcasting, it is becoming the rule as merger mania hits the industry. One example is the CBS-Westinghouse merger in which the conglomerate owned 15 TV stations and 39 radio stations. (1999)             Another is the Time Warner and Turner broadcasting merger which produced the largest media and entertainment conglomerate in the world, reaching more than 40 percent of cable households. And lastly, the merger of News Corp. Ltd. and MCI which made the products of Rupert Murdoch’s global media empire available through a broadcast network (Fox), TV stations, newspapers, magazines and home and business computer. (1999)             Additionally, the combination of Twentieth Century Fox with News Corporation’s television stations helped creates a fourth television network. An infrastructure of scores of programs and hundreds of channels has created through this because of the wiring of the cities with coaxial cable. (1999)             Michael Eisner, Walt Disney chairperson, described how the combined resources of the two companies would allow them to provide programming services for China and India when he announced his company’s merger with ABC. “Think of all the things we can do together. I am totally optimistic that one and one will add up to four here” he said. (1996)             Similarly, in the print media industry, the concentration has long been the trend. In the United States, four out of five newspapers were independently owned just after the World War II. However, only one in five was not the property of a chain in 1989. Moreover0 corporations controlled most of the nation’s 11,000 magazines in 1981. But the number shrank to three corporations only seven years later. (1999             The market domination of media conglomerates falls into two categories such as the vertical ownership and the horizontal.  Vertical ownership bears a logical relationship to the communications industry. ABC/Disney which owns newspapers, television, magazines, radio and books is the example of this. Horizontal ownership, on one hand, has no relationship between the media component and the giant corporations other subsidiaries like the CBS and NBC which are both owned by Westinghouse and General Electric, companies in the nuclear defense family. ( 1999)             The question such as is the concentration of media power among few conglomerates represented by the mergers of some giant media establishments a problem now arises. This also gives birth to the query of the political and economic implications of this trend of the media power concentration.             The concentration is argued by some people as the responsible for the least part of the improvement. On the contrary, Jay Harris, chairperson and publisher of the San Jose Mercury News reports that “if you look at the two largest newspaper chains – Gannett and Knight-Ridder – one of the outcomes of more newspapers coming into those groups has been that a number of the small- and medium-sized papers have clearly gotten better because of the resources of the larger company, the higher standards of journalistic practice, the investment in training, the ability to attract higher quality editors”. (1996)             Accordingly, the journalistic integrity is protected by these large corporations because the conglomerate has its eye on the bottom line, not on the sensitivities of local constituencies. The reporters and editors are actually shield by this concentration from the pressures that plagued those who worked for a news medium owned by a family in the community. (1996)             Harris (1998) states that, “it is not the size of the owner; it’s not what the owner chooses to do. It’s not what the primary motives of the owner are? What are the values? I can see no inherent positive or negative outcome in terms of the way journalism is done from any particular form media power concentration” (1996).             Equally, the defenders of concentration say that at least a few large corporations are better able to serve a democracy’s need for accurate, comprehensive information than many smaller competitors in the media and communication industry. (1996)             However, in the United States, the American public would have reason to fear for its democracy, if all the major media such as the daily newspaper, magazine, broadcasting station, book publishing house and motion picture studio were controlled by few corporations. Though this kind of extravagant power has a harsh history, the danger is not that this few controllers would necessarily be evil. ( 1983)             It is that the centralized control over information is incompatible with freedom whether it is evil or benevolent, governmental or private. Also, the need for choice of politics and ideas and access to truly diverse and competing sources of news, literature, entertainment and popular culture of modern democracies will be confine in vacuum because of such situation. ( 1983)             On one hand, the conglomerates that own the media run the United States because media power is equal to political power. Thus, the emergence of the corporate control of the media has altered how well-informed the American public is and as a result, these monopolies have also had an impact on the democratic process in this country. (1999)             In the same way, corporate ownership and media monopolies are essentially contrary to what democracy represents because these corporations control what the American people knows and does not know.  (1983) writes that “the power to control information is a major lever in the control of society”. Thus, there is little pluralism in journalism because only a few companies dominate the media. (1999)             This allows the media giants to suppress whatever information they desire. Because there is no diversity of expression, the public is not well informed about what is occurring in this country. Likewise, the democratic consent of the governed, according to the ideals of democracy and individual freedom, is meaningless unless the consent is informed consent. (2006)             Moreover, the media giants have reduced the coverage of the government because of the industry’s hunger for ratings aside from the fear that it is boring. So, the corporate chains of newspapers sell their soul for ratings even at a time when coverage of local and state government is fundamental. (1999)              Also, since the media giants have many politicians in their pockets there is an extreme pressure on politicians from lobbyists to extinguish bills harmful to the media monopoly and to promote bills that increase their domination. (1999)             But, even this case is like this where the media power is concentrated among a few companies; there is a march which should be praise toward this unhealthy end. The media they control take every opportunity to report the beauties of corporate bigness. This mergers and media acquisition seem to be as an exclusive financial game without social consequences. This will lead to the event where there where almost nothing of the dangers to be told to the general public. ( 1983)             On the other angle, it is not surprising if the executives of dominant media corporations are personally silent about the dangers of this trend because the process benefits them. And, the media they control is also silent. However, this silence is not convincing evidence that the media never reflect the corporate and political interests of their owners. ( 1983)             The practice of companies in this trend is already dominant. The newspapers as a one medium, for example, still invest in another competitive medium like the television. Each medium used to act like a watchdog over the behavior of its competing media in the past. ( 1983)             Additionally, each was vigilant against the other industries’ lobbying for unfair government concessions or against questionable business practices. However, they have been cross-bred into an amiable hybrid at present because of this concentration. ( 1983)             Corporations insist that they improve the media they buy. But, concentrated media ownership would still damage democracy in the United States even if all corporate owners universally improved their acquisitions and even if they all made their properties totally open to conflicting news and views. This is because concentrated media power over public information is inherently anti-democratic. ( 1983)             The chief executive officers of the 29 corporations controlling most of what Americans read and see can fit into an ordinary living room today. To promote their own corporate values to the exclusion of others, they can use control of their newspapers, broadcast stations, magazines, books and movies, if they wish. Most say that they would never use that power. But surely, available power will always be used when central interests are at stake. ( 1983)             The answer to great power in a democracy is accountability to the public. On one side, in business life, accountability, in some cases requires government regulations to prevent monopoly or to make natural monopolies meet public service standards. Because there is enough diversity and competition so that consumers have real choices, accountability for most commerce is self-induced. ( 1983)             Furthermore, real choices in the media mean a rich variety of political and social content in news, entertainment and other public information. This also means enough competition in content and prices so that the average consumer has genuine alternatives. It means equitable distribution of economic power in the marketplace so that a few dominant leaders cannot prevent true competition or the reasonable entry of new enterprises. ( 1983)             But, the country is losing diversity and competition among its major media and with it today because of the monopoly and oligopoly. This happening losses not only the variety of political voices but also the economic accountability of the marketplace. Nevertheless, the public are not alerted and aware of such problem, though media is controlled by the dominant corporations. ( 1983)             Conversely, corporations claim that the process is improving the country’s media outlets because they bring greater resources to improve their new acquisitions; they have more sophisticated business management skills; and their size makes it easier to fend off government incursions on freedom of expression and improper advertiser influence. Likewise, they believe that the public would not stand for it if they were tempted to use their power to the disadvantage of the public. ( 1983)             Some of these claims have been realized some of the time in thousands of media transactions of recent years. But, most of the time the record is unimpressive or worse; at best the record is mixed. (1983)             Corporations do not purchase local newspapers and broadcast stations for sentimental reasons because they buy them as investments that will yield a maximum return as quickly as possible. Few investors can resist the spectacular profits that can be made by cutting quality and raising prices when they buy a local monopoly which is typical of newspapers or an assured share of the market – typical of television. (1983)             According to Shaw (1986), “a daily monopoly newspaper with a 15 percent annual operating profit, can, within two years of purchase, be making a 40 percent profit by cutting costs and raising advertising and subscription prices”. (1983)             Correspondingly, to pursue the political promotion of the owner when the owner lusts after high office, media outlets can be purchased. One example is the 1920 presidency where Warren Gamaliel Harding, Ohio newspaper publisher, defeated James M. Cox, another publisher of a paper in Ohio who became Democratic candidate for president. (1983)             Nonetheless, the primary political advantage of concentrated media power today is no longer to gain high political office for the media executive.  The primary danger of excessive and concentrated media power is promoting the politics and economics of the corporate world, not the candidacies of the anonymous men and women who run corporations. Similarly, to influence the U.S. president is the desire now of most corporate leaders, instead of wanting to be president of the United States. (2006)             Moreover, the concentration of media power among a few entities leads to the demand for quite specific actions from government such as government contracts, relaxed application of antitrust laws, deregulation of business, elimination of limits on corporate profits and corporate tax loopholes. (1983)             For example, the General Electric combined its media power with its other industrial and financial interests when it bought RCA (and with it the NBC News) in 1986. It is now the major defense contractor and IT manufacturer selling sells electronic, electrical and nuclear systems worldwide. It also produces aircraft and spacecraft components and is in the insurance and banking business. With sales exceeding billion a year, its multinational operations are sensitive to both domestic and foreign policy. (1983)             Media conglomerates have integrated into the higher levels of American banking and industrial life as subsidiaries and interlocks within their boards of directors. In agribusiness, airlines, coal and oil, banking, insurance, defense contracts, automobile sales, rocket engineering, nuclear power and nuclear weapons, they become the heavy investors. (1983)             Since American foreign policy affected their investments, they make serious efforts to influence the news, to avoid embarrassing publicity and to maximize sympathetic public opinion and government policies. Now they own most of the news media that they wish to influence. (1983)             Oligopolistic markets and media conglomeration barely reveal the extent to which the media system is fundamentally noncompetitive in any meaningful economic sense of the term because they share the major shareholders, own pieces of each other and have interlocking boards of directors. (1997)             Not to mention the tangled web of alliance among the few media companies that dominates the market, the media monopoly itself is disturbing enough. According to  (1997), “these companies often have board members in common and they participate in joint ventures where they share ownership of concerns with their ‘competitors’ so as to reduce competition and risk”. (1999)             Generally, the concentration of media power among a few firms has taken place in national markets throughout the world. These powerful media firms dominate the regional and national markets. They have found a lucrative niche teaming up with the global media giants in joint ventures, offering the ‘local’ aspect of the content and massaging the local politicians.             This concentration in many ways is detrimental because it vaguely defined the political and economic interest of the society. This also brings all modes of communications and media schemes into one grand system lead by few conglomerates.   Credit:ivythesis.typepad.com

Discuss the political and economic implications of the trend toward concentration of media power among a few conglomerates. Give some useful examples..

Media Power Concentration: the Political and Economic Implications Media play a pivotal role in our every day life. We depend...