Research Topics: Housing Essay Examples

The Housing Market’s

The Housing Market’s

Forecasts of the housing market’s demise in recent years have been premature. The prolonged housing boom has been due not only to strong d...

1. Why did the House of Lords in R v G [2003] hold that a defendant who lacks capacity for foresight of a risk is not reckless for the purpose of s1 Criminal Damage Act 1971?                 The mental state of a person before and during the commission of an act determines the guilt of a person. Guilt may be supported by the mental state of doing an action purposely, knowingly, recklessly or negligently. The presence of any or the consistent combination of these mental states determines the guilt and the corresponding sentence accruing to guilt. In criminal prosecutions, there are generally three elements that should exist, which are a conduct or action, the circumstances surrounding the action, and the result of the action. However, there are a number of offenses without result elements.   Purposive action is considered as constituting the highest degree of culpability because the intended result is the consequence of the performance of a specific action. Although motive is not relevant to prosecute a person in criminal law, motive may help to support the facts of case and prove the intention of the person to commit an action in order to achieve a particular result.[1] Thus, a person who shots another person to death is deemed to have acted purposively if there is a reason or motive for doing so and the witnesses testified seeing the person in the places that the other person frequent.   Another mental state for culpability is acting knowingly, which requires the presence of a conscious objective to cause a result. The person knows that performing the specific action will cause the expected result but there is a hope that it may not. Purposive action involves a conscious desire to achieve the expected result as opposed to knowing action that involves a near certainty of achieving the result.[2] A person who plants a bomb in a car to kill a person knows that other people riding in the same care will die too but there is that hope that the person will be driving alone. Even deliberate blindness to the inevitable consequence of an action is considered as acting knowingly[3].               Another mental state for culpability is negligence. There is negligence if a person committing an action is not aware of the substantial risks of the action when that person should be aware. Negligent act is the failure to identify and foresee a risk involved in an action when there should be awareness of such risks. Negligent action covers the omission as well as the commission of an action.[4]               Reckless action covers another mental state for culpability. An action is deemed committed recklessly if the person is only aware of substantial risks that would cause a particular result. Recklessness is defined as involving awareness of substantial risk as opposed to practically certain risk. There is also no desire to achieve a result to actualize the risks.[5]             The mental state of acting recklessly is the primary issue raised to the House of Lords in the case[6] of minor children who lit newspapers in a wheelie-bin leaving the fire burning resulting to the burning of the entire building. At the trial court, the children were found guilty of destroying and damaging property under section 1(1) of the Criminal Damage Act 1971[7] because of their reckless action. In the case, the court considered reckless in the context of the case as based on whether a reasonable person could have perceived the risks involved in leaving burning newspapers in a plastic wheelie-bin. Since a reasonable adult could have perceived the risks involved in leaving a burning fire inside a property then the defendants were pronounced guilty under the Criminal Damage Act 1971. However, the judge gave the opinion that there is a sense of injustice in the decision even if it was made in consideration of the jurisprudential construction of reckless. The House of Lords sought to address the issue[8] and after deliberations overturned the conviction of the defendants. The House of Lords ruled that a person who does not have the capacity to perceive risk cannot be considered as acting recklessly.   The House of Lords ruled that reckless as used on section 1(1) of the Criminal Damage Act 1971 exists in circumstances where the person “is aware of a risk that it exists or will exist;” or “is aware of a risk that it will occur; and it is, in the circumstances known to him, unreasonable to take the risk”[9]. This means that the person should have the capacity to perceive risk if a person is to become aware of the risk. This then involves the consideration by the court of the capacity of the defendants to perceive risk and thus to be deemed as capable of being aware of the risk. Based on the circumstances of the case, the defendants were children aged 11 and 12 and left the fire burning on the thought that it would die out after the newspapers have been extinguished. There was no perception of any risk involved in leaving the burning fire so that there was no awareness of the risk. The conclusion then is that the defendants did not act recklessly.   There was a deviation from the ruling case of R v Caldwell[10] because of the failure of the ruling to pass the test of a legal rule because it does not reasonably apply in actual circumstances[11]. This is because the ruling in Caldwell requires the objective consideration of whether a reasonable person could have perceived the risk. A reasonable person refers to an adult. This application creates injustice because what is being considered is the objective standard of reasonable action and not the subjective circumstances of the defendants and the standard of reasonableness is that of an adult that precludes the state of mind of people who are not adults.   In the given case, the House of Lords allowed a deviation from the ruling case because justice would be achieved only if the subjective mental state of the defendants were to be considered. According to the facts of the case, the children had did not perceive a risk in their action making them unaware of such risks. The test of comparing the perception and awareness of a reasonable person to that of the defendants cannot lie because an adult cannot be reasonably compared to a child. Reckless action as a basis for culpability requires the consideration of the state of mind of the defendants. To do this the mental state of the defendants during the commission of the act should be determined subjectively. The law in question requires the ability of perception and awareness of risk of the defendant to become culpable. In the case, the defendants neither had the ability to perceive or become aware of the risk.    Semester A 2005/6 [word count: 1097) <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%; punctuation-wrap: simple; text-autospace: none; margin-left: .25pt; margin-right: 2.65pt; margin-top: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; background: white"> 2. Ezra was a member of an extreme political organisation. He made a telephone call to a police station in which he stated that he had placed a bomb in Central Train Station and it would be detonated in two hours time. Bill, an explosives expert, was sent by the army to defuse the bomb but it exploded one hour early and he was killed. A passer-by named Claude was injured by the explosion. He was found by an ambulance worker, Darren, but because it was time for Darren to go of duty, he failed to assist Claude with the result that Claude's injuries deteriorated. He was eventually taken to hospital where he refused a potentially life-saving blood transfusion owing to his religious principles. After one week whilst his wounds were healing Claude re-opened his scars with a scalpel, jumped from the third floor window of the hospital and was killed. Ezra stated upon arrest that his intention had only been to frighten the authorities and damage the train station. <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%; punctuation-wrap: simple; text-autospace: none; margin-left: .25pt; margin-right: 2.65pt; margin-top: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; background: white">   Discuss the liability of Ezra and Darren for the deaths of Bill and Claude. What difference would it make, if any, if Ezra also revealed that he had an irresistible impulse to kill?                 Ezra is liable for committing acts of terrorism. Section 1 of the Terrorism Act 2000 provides the elements of terrorism. There is a threat or use of action to threaten or influence the public or government or to advance a political, religious or ideological cause. Terrorism is defined by the existence of several elements[12]. There is terrorism if the action involves using firearms or explosives[13]. A terrorist act involves an action against the UK government in behalf or for the interest of a proscribed organization[14].               The prosecution may consider Ezra’s action as acts of terrorism because placement of explosives in a public place was intended to threaten the authorities. There was also loss of life and damage to property resulting from the action. The action was against the UK government in behalf of Ezra’s organization, which is assumed to be proscribed since the organization is described as extremist or radical. On the part of prosecution, there is culpability because the defendant had the intention to threaten authorities and actualized this threat by the acts rues of planting a bomb in the Central Train Station threatening the lives of passengers and the destruction of public property. The defendant also had the ability to perceive and be aware of the risks due to his state of mind. In his own words, Ezra admitted that he has an irresistible impulse to kill and planting a bomb in a public place is one way of killing. Ezra may provide the defense that he warned the police about the bomb giving them enough time to find and defuse the bomb.   The defendant may claim that there was no intention to harm people or cause damage property. However, under the Terrorism Act 2000, terrorism involves a threat or use of action that creates a serious risk on the health and life of people or cause serious violence against a person or serious damage to property. Even if Ezra intended for the police to find and detonate the bomb, placing the bomb in a public place created the risk to the health and lives of people and risk of damaging property. The perception and awareness of these risks makes his actions knowing acts. Thus, Ezra has committed acts of terrorism under the Terrorism Act 2000.                  The terrorist acts committed by Ezra are punishable under existing penal laws. Ezra’s action resulted to the death of one person and injury to another person. Ezra is liable for murder for the death of Bill and serious injuries to Claude. Lord Chief Justice Coke proposed the definition “Murder is when a man of sound memory, and of the age of discretion, unlawfully killed within any country of the realm any reasonable creature in rerun natural under the king’s peace, with malice aforethought, either expressed by the party or implied by law, so as the party wounded, or hurt die of the wound or hurt within a year and a day after the same.”[15] Based on this definition, murder involves the elements of intention to kill or to cause serious bodily harm to any person or intention to do an act with knowledge that it would probably kill or cause serious bodily harm to another person.               In the given case, the prosecution is able to prove intention by considering the state of mind of the defendant. There was a voluntary admission by Ezra that he had an irresistible impulse to kill. In this context coupled with the act of placing a bomb, the defendant had the intention to kill or cause serious bodily harm. The defendant may forward the defense that there was no intention to kill because he willingly called the police to inform them of the bomb and sufficient time left to defuse the bomb. This belies the claim that there was intention to kill or cause serious bodily harm. Upon application of the law, there is no intention to kill or to cause serious injury based on the action of Ezra of informing the police about the bomb. However, the ability of Ezra to perceive the risk that the police may not be able to defuse the bomb and his irresistible impulse to kill calls for murder. Moreover, even if intent is not sufficiently proven Ezra will still be liable for manslaughter.               Apart from the commission of the terrorist act of killing and causing serious injury to another person, the defendant is also liable for damage to property under the Criminal Damage Act 1971. Under this law, section 1 provides for destruction or damage to property and section 2 covers the threat to destroy or damage property. Under section 1, the elements of the offense are the intentional or reckless destruction of property or damage or recklessness to endanger the life of another without lawful cause. The prosecution may present evidence to prove the intention of the defendant to destroy property by placing a bomb in the Central Train Station there being no absolute assurance that the bomb will be defused within two hours. Intention may also be deduced from the fact that the bomb detonated after an hour instead of the two hours that Ezra told the police. The defendant may claim that there was no intention to destroy property or cause damage to endanger lives because the police were informed of the bomb and there was intention to have the police find and defuse the bomb. According to the law, culpability exists by reason of purposive, knowing or reckless action. No matter the defense that Ezra may pose, he is still liable for damage to property due to purposive action by the acts rues of placing a bomb in the Central Train Station or by knowing action by placing the bomb in a public place knowing its risks but hoping that the police would defuse it on time or reckless action by placing the bomb in a public place perceiving the substantial risk that it will not be found or defused on time. The extent of liability and penalty of the defendant for damage to property depends upon proof of means read.               In the case of Darren, he is liable under tort law for failure to comply with his duty to give aid to a person injured by an explosion since he is an ambulance worker when the reason for the failure is that he is already off-duty. The duty to rescue covers two general scenarios, one is when a person caused a situation that injures another then the person has the duty to rescue the other person and another the existence of a relationship providing for the duty to rescues such as police officers, firefighters and medical workers. In the second case, the duty to rescue is determined is covered by the scope of their employment. Their expertise in the different forms of emergency vests upon them a greater responsibility to perform their duties diligently. In the case of medical workers, they have the duty to give aid to injured people because they are the experts in that field. The duty lies even without a contract because of the neighbor principle.[16]   Negligence is defined through the elements of the existence of a duty, breach of the duty, the causation relation between the breach of duty and the damage, the resulting damage. In the given case, Darren had the duty to provide medical care but unreasonably refused to comply with this duty resulting to the deterioration of the condition of Claude but not for the death of Claude there being intervening factors. Darren is expected to act reasonably[17] especially since he is aware of the risks of lack of medical care for injuries. Based on this, Darren is liable for negligence under tort law because of the breach of his duty to rescue.    [1]  (2001). Criminal Law. Maryland: Aspen Publishers, Inc.   [2] Ibid. [3] United States v. Jewell [1976] 532 F.2d 697 (9th Cir. 1976) [4]  (2001). Criminal Law. Maryland: Aspen Publishers, Inc. [5] Ibid. [6]  and Another [2003] KUHN 50 [7] “1.  (1) A person who without lawful excuse destroys or damages any property belonging to another intending to destroy or damage any such property or being reckless as to whether any such property would be destroyed or damaged shall be guilty of an offence.” [8] “Can a defendant properly be convicted under section 1 of the Criminal Damage Act 1971 on the basis that he was reckless as to whether property was destroyed or damaged when he gave no thought to the risk but, by reason of his age and/or personal characteristics the risk would not have been obvious to him, even if he had thought about it?” [9]  and Another [2003] KUHN 50, paragraph 41 [10] [1982] AC 341, 358 [11] and Another [2003] KUHN 50, paragraph 57 [12] “(a) involves serious violence against a person, (b) involves serious damage to property, (c) endangers a person’s life, other than that of the person committing the action, (d) creates a serious risk to the health or safety of the public or a section of the public, ore) is designed seriously to interfere with or seriously to disrupt an electronic system.” (Terrorism Act 2000, Section 1(2) [13] Terrorism Act 2000, Section 1(3) [14] Terrorism Act 2000, Section 1(4) [15] (2004). ‘Murder as an Offence under English Law’. Journal of Criminal Law, 68(4), 315-328.   [16] Donohue (or McAlister) v. Stevenson [1932] O.C. 532, 1932 S.C. (H.L.) 31, [1932] All ER Rep 1 [17]  [1951] O.C. 850, [1951] 1 All E.G. 1078 (H.L.) Credit:ivythesis.typepad.com

The House of the Lords

1. Why did the House of Lords in R v G [2003] hold that a defendant who lacks capacity for foresight of a risk is not reckless for the pu...

Will Surging Supply Pop the Bubble?

In the recent years, early forecasts of the falling demand for housing are being made. It seems that this was due to the oversupply of houses due to the inaccurate use of the builders’ speculations about it. While they continue to build houses at an increase rate, the demand for housing seems to be not favoring them. A lot of reasons are being made but still they cannot try to figure out the real reason behind it. As the situation continues, a lot of builders not are thinking twice on what actions to make to solve the issue.             Let us try to look back to the past events to figure this out. During the second half of the year 2005, supply of houses, particularly of new single-family houses is growing at its fastest pace since the middle of 1980s. However, the sales seemed to be not cooperating. It had been gradually slowing down. This made the builders to make some little adjustments to address the issue. Same case happens with multi-family buildings. It is said to be even worse since vacancy rates are at its historically high rates.             Then in the late 2003, the bump in long-term interest rates arises. The situation now turned upside down. It had reduced the rate of home buying. During this time, inventories continue to rise at relatively low levels. According to Chris Low, a FTN Financial chief economist, “In 2003, it was safe to say that homebuilders had entirely avoided the temptations of speculative building”. He also added that this situation is no longer true today. Credit:ivythesis.typepad.com

Will Surging Supply Pop the Bubble?

In the recent years, early forecasts of the falling demand for housing are being made. It seems that this was due to the oversupply of ho...

Housing: Will Surging Supply Pop the Bubble

Housing: Will Surging Supply Pop the Bubble?               In the recent years, early forecasts of the falling demand for housing are being made. It seems that this was due to the oversupply of houses due to the inaccurate use of the builders’ speculations about it. While they continue to build houses at an increase rate, the demand for housing seems to be not favoring them. A lot of reasons are being made but still they cannot try to figure out the real reason behind it. As the situation continues, a lot of builders not are thinking twice on what actions to make to solve the issue.             Let us try to look back to the past events to figure this out. During the second half of the year 2005, supply of houses, particularly of new single-family houses is growing at its fastest pace since the middle of 1980s. However, the sales seemed to be not cooperating. It had been gradually slowing down. This made the builders to make some little adjustments to address the issue. Same case happens with multi-family buildings. It is said to be even worse since vacancy rates are at its historically high rates.             Then in the late 2003, the bump in long-term interest rates arises. The situation now turned upside down. It had reduced the rate of home buying. During this time, inventories continue to rise at relatively low levels. According to Chris Low, a FTN Financial chief economist, “In 2003, it was safe to say that homebuilders had entirely avoided the temptations of speculative building”. He also added that this situation is no longer true today.               In the month of December, construction continues to increase despite the signs of cooler demand. As indicated by the National Association of Realtors, the housing affordability index hit a 14-year low in the month of November. The attractiveness of the adjustable-rate mortgages are being reduced by the higher short-term interest rates.             Things got even worse when the number of existing homes for sale rises (up to 20.6% from a year ago) as the number of builders continues to rise. This had made the competition stricter than before, despite the bad situation in the market. It was seen that this rise in inventory will hold back the overall appreciation of the prices of homes. As predicted by Fannie Mae, the median price gain goes down to only 3% in 2006. This was after the gain in the recent years, which is said to be in double-digits.             As the demand for housing stabilizes, speculative activities will evaporate. If only will housing slow down noticeably. In this case, home sales could be posing an even bigger annual decline, worse than the biggest decline to be recorded in fall of the year 1991, which is 6.3%. The result: jobless rate will soon start to increase again as builders continue on ceasing their projects due to their doubts regarding the situation of their market.             After reviewing the said events, it is therefore concluded that property prices might go down to attract more customers. In this way, they might have an edge to their competitor. As long as it does not incur them losses, prices can be lowered and the additional demand will cover up the possible loss from the said decrease in prices. This is possible as long as they still incur enough profits/gain. Credit:ivythesis.typepad.com

Housing: Will Surging Supply Pop the Bubble

Housing: Will Surging Supply Pop the Bubble? In the recent years, early forecasts of the falling demand for housing are be...

Determinants of House Prices

Determinants of House Prices             House price dynamics are usually modeled in terms of changes in housing demand and supply. On the demand side, key factors are typically taken to be expected change in house prices, household income, the real rate on housing loans, financial wealth, demographic and labor market factors, the expected rate of return on housing and other demand shifters. On the supply side, factors include proxies of the location, age and state of housing or institutional factors that facilitates or hinder households’ access to the housing market, such as financial innovation on the mortgage and housing loan market.   Discussed below are some of the factors that affect house prices. 1. Growth of Bank Credit – One of the factors that affect house prices is the growth of bank credit to households. 2. Demographic Factors – Demographic factors play a role in housing demand and house prices. If there was a baby boom in the 1970s and the early 1980s demand will rise as these cohorts approach their prime earning age and enter the housing market. 3. Regulatory and Institutional Framework – Improvements in the regulatory and institutional framework necessary for the development of the property market have largely occurred as a result of the EU accession process. In particular, reforms in legislation and judiciary practices that make it easier for creditors to seize real estate collateral removed a key obstacle to buying and selling property.     Demand can be defined as the quantity of a commodity consumers are willing to purchase at a particular price. The demand for most commodities will rise as their price falls and fall as their price rises and there is therefore an inverse relationship between price and quantity demanded. This can be understood more clearly when we realize that the market demand for a commodity is itself made up entirely of the individual demands of consumers or producers. Individual consumers will have a choice of alternative products in any single category (for example, different makes of cars), and they will also be constrained by fixed levels of income. If the market price of a commodity rises, consumers will have to either reduce their consumption of the good or find a suitable alternative or they will have to reduce their consumption of another good. A similar pattern will emerge for commodities which are demanded mainly by producers. For example, if there is a rise in the price of bricks, producers (e.g. construction firms) will try to substitute other materials such as timber, cement or steel (the prices of which we assume have not risen) for bricks in the production process (in this case construction).   1. Purchasing power of the household which is mainly dependent on the level of income. With a rise in income, households can potentially purchase greater quantities of all of the goods they currently consume. In practice, however, demand for some commodities will rise faster than others as incomes increase. 2. A change in tastes may influence consumption patterns. For example, a trend towards ‘green’ awareness may encourage households to consume more energy-efficient items—demand for roof insulation, double glazing, low-energy lighting, etc. may subsequently rise. 3. The prices of other goods. Some goods may have close substitutes, for example tea and coffee, so that if there is a sudden rise in the price of either, consumers are able to switch and consume more of the (now relatively cheaper) alternative.   Supply Curve 1. If there is a change in the state of technology which lowers the cost of production. For example, it was hoped that the introduction of industrialized building techniques in the 1960s would greatly reduce the cost of local authority house-building. 2. If there is an upwards or downwards shift in the price of factors of production. For example, a rise in the price of oil would raise the cost of producing plastics used in windows and many building materials. It would also increase transport costs, thus affecting most industries in the economy in some way. 3. If there is a change in the objectives or goals of producing firms. Normally, we assume firms have the same goals and aim to maximize profits. However, there may be other objectives which can override profit maximization; for instance, firms may accept lower prices to achieve higher market share, or they may accept higher costs to ensure security of supply of certain factors of production (e.g. raw materials). Other firms may accept lower prices or higher costs in order to achieve social or environmental objectives. Credit:ivythesis.typepad.com

Determinants of House Prices

Determinants of House Prices House price dynamics are usually modeled in terms of changes in housing demand and supply. On th...

Determinants of Housing Demand

Determinants of House Prices             House price dynamics are usually modeled in terms of changes in housing demand and supply. On the demand side, key factors are typically taken to be expected change in house prices, household income, the real rate on housing loans, financial wealth, demographic and labor market factors, the expected rate of return on housing and other demand shifters. On the supply side, factors include proxies of the location, age and state of housing or institutional factors that facilitates or hinder households’ access to the housing market, such as financial innovation on the mortgage and housing loan market ( 2007).   Determinants of Housing Demand             In trying to understand the concept of demand, it is helpful to imagine that the marketplace is populated by people acting in one of only two roles: consumers or producers. Consumers are those who hope to acquire and make use of goods and services. Producers perform the function of bringing these goods and services to market. In the housing market, it is simplest to think of households or families as the consumers and developers and builders as the producers. The price of housing, the prices of other goods and services, the financial resources and taste of consumers, and the number of potential housing consumers will influence the demand for housing (1988). 1. Price             For most goods and services, the quantity demanded by consumers increases as the price falls. If the demand for housing behaves like other demand relationships, holding constant all of the other factors that influence housing demand, lower prices should increase the quantity demanded. If the price of housing structures falls, consumer demands will rise. In the rental market, where housing services are bought and sold, the price is called the rental price or lease rate. Here should the rental price fall, the quantity of housing services demanded could be expected to rise (1988).             Price influences both the quantity consumers demand and the quantity producers are willing to supply. The quantitative effect on demand or supply may range from quite small to very large. The economic term to describe such responsiveness is elasticity. A high degree of elasticity implies a high level of responsiveness and vice versa (1998).   Price elasticity of demand – This represents a measure of the responsiveness of demand to changes in the prices of a commodity. Price changes will have opposite implications for expenditure and revenue, depending on whether demand is elastic or inelastic, and this information is of clear interest to producers. It is possible that demand elasticity could be equal to (−) unity, and hence neither elastic nor inelastic. Consequently, total, expenditure would remain unchanged whatever the change in price. The main factor influencing price elasticity if the availability of substitutes; food products for example are a necessity and there are no overall substitute for food. The demand of various types of meat (such as beef, pork, lamb and others) is clearly elastic as each represents and potential substitute for the other. The demand for housing, on the other hand, is inelastic, as there are no substitutes for housing and it is often considered to be something of a necessity ( 1998). 2. Income             The demand for housing is not only influenced by price. A household’s budgetary constraints also influence the demand for housing. One measure of the budgetary constraint under which households must operate is household income, the flow of cash from wage and salary employment, investments or the direct sale of goods and services. Without income it would not be possible for the household to meet continuing obligation associated with housing, such as mortgage payments, the cost of heating and lighting, or rental payments, It seems likely, therefore, that the demand for housing is amplified by increased income. If the demand for housing is positively related to income, then an increase in household income would cause the demand curve to increase. As obvious as income would seem as an influence on housing demand, the effect proves difficult to quantify in a consistent way. The reason is that the channels through which income influence housing demand are complicated. Income not only influences the ability of a household to afford the continuing cash-flow burdens of housing, but is also an influence on the household’s perception of its lifetime wealth prospects (1988). 3. Population and Household Formation             The number of consumers desiring housing also influences housing demand. The basic set of factors underlying the number and composition of households is a combination of sociological and economic forces. Trends in fertility rates and mortality rates over time determine the population’s age distribution at any point in time. This age distribution is by itself an important influence on the size and number of households formed. The greater the ration of young to adult individuals in the population, the greater is the probability that households are characterized by relatively large size. In addition, the high proportion of young individuals in the population is a string indication that there will be an increased number of household sin the future, everything else being equal. This is because sociologically, household formation tend s to be associated with the onset of adulthood (1988).   Determinants of Housing Supply 1. Availability of Land             The first essential condition for a vibrant and well-functioning housing sector is the availability of residential land, in ample supply and at affordable prices. <ul style="margin-top: 0in; margin-bottom: 0in" type="circle"> <li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%">land in growing and richer cities will be more expensive than land in shrinking and poorer ones; </li> <li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%">land in larger and denser cities will be more expensive than land in smaller and more dispersed ones</li> <li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%">land in more developed markets will be more expensive than land in more primitive ones</li> <li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%">land with legal title will be more expensive than either land with a clouded title, land in illegal occupation, or land threatened by clearance</li> <li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%">centrally located land or land near places of employment will be more expensive than peripheral land located away from employment opportunities</li> <li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%">land with good transport access will be more expensive than land with little or no transport access</li> <li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%">lands with a full complement of amenities will be more expensive than land lacking in such amenities</li> <li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%">land protected from environmental hazards will be more expensive than land in disaster-prone or hazardous locations</li> <li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%">land in cities with strict growth controls will be more expensive than land in cities with lax controls</li> <li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%">land in stable and safe communities will be more expensive than land in transient and crime-ridden ones; and</li> <li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%">land in cities with many nonresidential uses competing for it will be more expensive than land with few such competitors (2000).</li> </ul> 2. Conditions in the Residential Construction Sector             The conditions in the residential construction sector requires a deeper understanding of house building as seen from the perspective of the builders themselves. Ample and affordable housing relies heavily on the builders’ ability to produce it inexpensively and quickly, as well as to respond creatively to changes in the context and the policy environment governing the sector. Whether or not conditions in the house-building industry allow it to do so is of fundamental concern to housing policy. An enabling housing policy should create conditions for that industry that, at the very least, lower construction costs for a given level of quality. From the perspective of builders, in a well-functioning housing sector licensing requirements, regulations, or monopolistic practices do not impede any builder or group of builders from engaging in residential construction. Regulations do not restrict producers from creating a large variety of housing arrangements and combinations, substituting among different inputs and characteristics to meet changing conditions. There are many entrepreneurs who can participate in housing production at all scales, there is sufficient incentive for them to enter the sector, and there is normal risk of business failure. Producers engage in building for all income groups, do not shy away from any segment of the housing market, and pay sufficient attention to renovation of the existing stock, as well as to rental housing. At the same time, dwellers themselves can also engage in self-help or self-managed building of houses, extensions, renovation, or repairs without necessarily requiring professional assistance (2000). 3. The Availability of Mortgage Credit             A third set of housing market conditions, the actual conditions in the housing finance industry, calls for a more thorough investigation of the housing sector as seen through yet another perspective – the perspective of those who lend for housing. Housing policy is intimately tied to the development of the housing finance industry because ample and affordable housing relies heavily on the ability of the financial sector to provide ample and affordable credit for housing. We can distinguish three stages in the development of lending for housing, each involving different types of lenders: (a) direct lending, (b) mortgage banking, and (c) securitization. Direct lending is a simple face-to-face transaction between a borrower and a lender. Mortgage banking is once removed: a mortgage bank lends the money for housing from deposits that it collects from savers. Securitization is twice (or more) removed: mortgage loans are originated by one institution, sold to a second institution that collects the mortgage payments and then sells tradable securities (backed by these payments) in the capital market to yet a third institution. The latter can be a pension fund, an insurance fund, or a mutual fund – either domestic or international – that then may sell shares to individual investors. The theoretical value of mortgage loans aside, there are several necessary conditions for mortgage lending to develop in practice. Three of them concern the legal environment for lending: titles must be clear and transferable, contracts must be enforceable, and foreclosure – the legal possession of the property by the lender in case of default – must be allowed to proceed without undue delay (2000).   Discussed below are some of the factors that affect house prices. 1. Growth of Bank Credit – One of the factors that affect house prices is the growth of bank credit to households. 2. Demographic Factors – Demographic factors play a role in housing demand and house prices. If there was a baby boom in the 1970s and the early 1980s demand will rise as these cohorts approach their prime earning age and enter the housing market. 3. Regulatory and Institutional Framework – Improvements in the regulatory and institutional framework necessary for the development of the property market have largely occurred as a result of the EU accession process. In particular, reforms in legislation and judiciary practices that make it easier for creditors to seize real estate collateral removed a key obstacle to buying and selling property.   Demand Curve             Demand can be defined as the quantity of a commodity consumers are willing to purchase at a particular price. The demand for most commodities will rise as their price falls and fall as their price rises and there is therefore an inverse relationship between price and quantity demanded. This can be understood more clearly when we realize that the market demand for a commodity is itself made up entirely of the individual demands of consumers or producers. Individual consumers will have a choice of alternative products in any single category (for example, different makes of cars), and they will be constrained by fixed levels of income. If the market price of a commodity rises, consumers will have to either reduce their consumption of the good or find a suitable alternative or they will have to reduce their consumption of another good. A similar pattern will emerge for commodities which are demanded mainly by producers. For example, if there is a rise in the price of bricks, producers (e.g. construction firms) will try to substitute other materials such as timber, cement or steel (the prices of which we assume have not risen) for bricks in the production process (in this case construction) ( 1998).   1. Purchasing power of the household which is mainly dependent on the level of income. With a rise in income, households can potentially purchase greater quantities of all of the goods they currently consume. In practice, however, demand for some commodities will rise faster than others as incomes increase (  1998). 2. A change in tastes may influence consumption patterns. For example, a trend towards ‘green’ awareness may encourage households to consume more energy-efficient items—demand for roof insulation, double glazing, low-energy lighting, etc. may subsequently rise ( 1998). 3. The prices of other goods. Some goods may have close substitutes, for example tea and coffee, so that if there is a sudden rise in the price of either, consumers are able to switch and consume more of the (now relatively cheaper) alternative ( 1998).   Supply Curve 1. If there is a change in the state of technology which lowers the cost of production. For example, it was hoped that the introduction of industrialized building techniques in the 1960s would greatly reduce the cost of local authority house-building (1998). 2. If there is an upwards or downwards shift in the price of factors of production. For example, a rise in the price of oil would raise the cost of producing plastics used in windows and many building materials. It would also increase transport costs, thus affecting most industries in the economy in some way ( 1998). 3. If there is a change in the objectives or goals of producing firms. Normally, we assume firms have the same goals and aim to maximize profits. However, there may be other objectives which can override profit maximization; for instance, firms may accept lower prices to achieve higher market share, or they may accept higher costs to ensure security of supply of certain factors of production (e.g. raw materials). Other firms may accept lower prices or higher costs in order to achieve social or environmental objectives ( 1998).                       Credit:ivythesis.typepad.com

Determinants of Housing Demand

Determinants of House Prices House price dynamics are usually modeled in terms of changes in housing demand and supply. On th...

PROVIDE A CRITICAL AND ANALYTICAL ANALYSIS OF RURAL COMMUNITY ” FIRST RIGHT TO BUT ” BASED ON INDEPENDENT LITERARY AND INTERNET RESEARCH EXPLAINING YOUR RECOMMENDATIONS ON ACTION ( IF ANY ) YOU WOULD ADVISE THE SCOTTISH EXECUTIVE, IN REFORMING THE LAW

I.                  Introduction Homeownership in the United Kingdom has been one of the most enduring subjects in social discourses nowadays. The acquisition of one’s own home is tantamount to acquiring a major asset for any individual. To this manner, the state has provided the citizens the capability of acquiring their own dwellings through the ratification of entitlements in the Housing Act of 1985, and later amended in the Housing Act of 2004. These entitlements are collectively known as “right to buy” entitlements on the part of the tenants the moment the property comes on sale. The following discussions will provide a presentation of these rights of the tenants on their right to buy entitlements. Moreover, recommendations will similarly be provided after an analysis of the entitlements and rights of the tenant are discussed.     II.               Home Ownership in UK Studies relating to the state of homeownership in UK have been taken into consideration by the Department of Communities and Local Government (DCLG). Their recent work surveyed the whole of UK categorizing the UK dwellers as owner-occupying households, social renters, and private renters. (, 2006) In the said study they found out that over 14.6 million people owns their own dwelling and over 6 million both social renters and private renters. This shows that a considerable number of the UK population owns the properties they live in while there is still a considerable part of the population are tenants. The study further noted that those who own their own house still differ in terms of their economic statuses. The DCLG indicated that majority (92%) of those who owns their houses pays under a mortgage while 35% were considered outright owners. This data manifests the existence of buying schemes in UK, specifically it shows that majority of the homeowners in the country has acquired their dwellings with the help of such schemes. The other portion deemed to have owned their dwellings outright may have bought the house on their own accord without the help of any financial institution, or they could have acquired it through transfer of title through inheritance.    III.            New Rights under Housing Act of 2004 The Housing Act of 2004 has been ratified by the parliament I November of 2004 and implemented in early parts of 2005. Seen from its predecessor, the Housing Act of 1985, the contents of the current legislation intends to install enhancements on the rights to buy of the population. Same as the past legislation, the Act allows any tenant who is capable of purchasing the real property they are currently dwelling in. The exceptions still remains on the properties that have some connection to the employment of the buyer, like housing projects for government employees. Other exceptions include establishments that are especially provided to the elderly and the handicapped. The changes that were infused in the said legislation tackled certain issues on using the tenant’s right to buy as a tool for business. Peppered by numerous early resales of the properties under the right to buy scheme, the government have taken a hand by instituting several changes in the Act. One of the amendments in the Act is the qualifying period to which a tenant has to be eligible for the right to buy scheme. The change from two years to five years was placed. Another extension provided by the Act is repayment periods of the discounts given to the owners if they intend to resell their property. The period indicated was three to five years. Moreover the Act also indicated that the amount repayable to the state would be in proportion to the resale value of the house. Other changes include the exemption of houses that are condemned for demolition. This means that those who intend to buy a dilapidated property for a low amount in order to build a new structure in place of it would not have a change anymore under the new regime. IV.           Conclusion As seen in the changes provided in the Act, the state made the right buy scheme immune to some level of abuse from malicious individuals who want to gain profitably from the government scheme. These individuals defeat the purpose of the Housing Act, and the Right to buy scheme in particular. The essence of the Act and the scheme itself is to provide housing for the entire population of UK. The state in its own is able to provide such an opportunity for more than six million renters in the land. To this end, the amendment of the Housing Act indicates the desire for actual reform to take place. Additional actions may also be recommended to improve the implementation of the law. One may be the provisions of additional discounts to encourage homeownership to the public. Not only that, it will also be a precursor to the circumvention of homelessness in the country. Another recommendation would be the provision of closer monitoring in the post-acquisition phase of the property. This manifests the fact that helping the tenant acquire a home is merely the beginning. Paying for the property is a part of that process. As stated in the study of the DCLG, majority of those who have acquired their homes goes through a mortgage. This study recommends that the state provide some sort of program or sanction to the homeowners who may have been encountering difficulties in meeting their payments. The state may purchase the property in a lower price from the home owner and find another tenant who would be able to carry out his/her financial obligations more effectively. In this manner, everyone has a shot in owning a home. Moreover, the Act as well as the right to buy represents other things than giving the liberty to purchase assets for dwelling. It also represents the responsibility of the homeowner after the purchase of the house. Along with the risks involved, it is the commission of the homeowner to care for the property that the state has helped him/her acquire.     V.              References Credit:ivythesis.typepad.com

PROVIDE A CRITICAL AND ANALYTICAL ANALYSIS OF RURAL COMMUNITY ” FIRST RIGHT TO BUT ” BASED ON INDEPENDENT LITERARY AND INTERNET RESEARCH EXPLAINING YOUR RECOMMENDATIONS ON ACTION ( IF ANY ) YOU WOULD ADVISE THE SCOTTISH EXECUTIVE, IN REFORMING THE LAW

I. Introduction Homeownership in the United Kingdom has been one of the most enduring subjects in social di...

HOUSING

Housing: Will Surging Supply Pop the Bubble?               In the recent years, early forecasts of the falling demand for housing are being made. It seems that this was due to the oversupply of houses due to the inaccurate use of the builders’ speculations about it. While they continue to build houses at an increase rate, the demand for housing seems to be not favoring them. A lot of reasons are being made but still they cannot try to figure out the real reason behind it. As the situation continues, a lot of builders not are thinking twice on what actions to make to solve the issue.             Let us try to look back to the past events to figure this out. During the second half of the year 2005, supply of houses, particularly of new single-family houses is growing at its fastest pace since the middle of 1980s. However, the sales seemed to be not cooperating. It had been gradually slowing down. This made the builders to make some little adjustments to address the issue. Same case happens with multi-family buildings. It is said to be even worse since vacancy rates are at its historically high rates.             Then in the late 2003, the bump in long-term interest rates arises. The situation now turned upside down. It had reduced the rate of home buying. During this time, inventories continue to rise at relatively low levels. According to , a FTN Financial chief economist, “In 2003, it was safe to say that homebuilders had entirely avoided the temptations of speculative building”. He also added that this situation is no longer true today.               In the month of December, construction continues to increase despite the signs of cooler demand. As indicated by the National Association of Realtors, the housing affordability index hit a 14-year low in the month of November. The attractiveness of the adjustable-rate mortgages are being reduced by the higher short-term interest rates.             Things got even worse when the number of existing homes for sale rises (up to 20.6% from a year ago) as the number of builders continues to rise. This had made the competition stricter than before, despite the bad situation in the market. It was seen that this rise in inventory will hold back the overall appreciation of the prices of homes. As predicted by Fannie Mae, the median price gain goes down to only 3% in 2006. This was after the gain in the recent years, which is said to be in double-digits.             As the demand for housing stabilizes, speculative activities will evaporate. If only will housing slow down noticeably. In this case, home sales could be posing an even bigger annual decline, worse than the biggest decline to be recorded in fall of the year 1991, which is 6.3%. The result: jobless rate will soon start to increase again as builders continue on ceasing their projects due to their doubts regarding the situation of their market.             After reviewing the said events, it is therefore concluded that property prices might go down to attract more customers. In this way, they might have an edge to their competitor. As long as it does not incur them losses, prices can be lowered and the additional demand will cover up the possible loss from the said decrease in prices. This is possible as long as they still incur enough profits/gain. Credit:ivythesis.typepad.com

HOUSING

Housing: Will Surging Supply Pop the Bubble? In the recent years, early forecasts of the falling demand for housing are be...

Professionalization of Housing Management

Professionalization of Housing Management     Introduction Shelter, water and food are generally accepted as the basic needs of life. Housing is a fundamental need; it provides shelter and also gives access to a decent water supply. Housing is not generally thought of as an area of professional activity-the idea of housing as a subject of academic study is often greeted with genuine surprise.   It has been noted that there is growing significance of professional housing management in Hong Kong and it has also been known the wide adoption of the “Hong Kong management model” in the neighbor cities of high density. The complexity of housing issues also inhibits radical revision. Housing reflects and affects the economic and social framework in which it is located. Housing is influenced by demographic, economic, fiscal and social trends, while housing policy changes have their own impact on all of these aspects. Programs designed to deal with one issue often have unintended effects in other fields and it is only too easy for policies to cancel each other out or contradict each other.   It is extremely unlikely that a future package of coherent, rational policies will emerge which can tackle housing problems across the board; there will always be uncertainty and scope for speculation.   Housing is undoubtedly affects the social, political and health issues however there are growing debates on the issue of housing as a profession. In fact in Hong Kong as been stated has a growing number of housing professionals. The issue of concern here has been pointed to the professionalization of housing management. Issues Based on  formulation which involves nine separate continua, issues on the professionalization of housing management would be tackled. The nine continua in which  has identified includes knowledge, task, decision-making, authority, identity, work, career, education and role. According to the formulation, an occupation can be considered as a profession when the knowledge is broad and theoretical to used in a non-routine task to reach a unprogrammed decision making according to the ends decided for the society and supported by occupational group as work is the central life interest and the basis of individual career achievement which involves an extensive education, showing skill and meeting other latent status requirement involves in the total role that is expected to extent beyond expertise and work situation. To determine if housing management is a profession, profession is defined. There are many definitions of profession, professional, or a process of professionalization. An effective definition comes from , who describes a profession as “a type of high-grade, non-manual occupation, with both objectively and subjectively recognized occupational status, possessing a well-defined area of study or concern and providing a definite service, after advanced training and education.” (1964) To further qualify this definition, it is useful to look at Greenwood’s list of characteristics that define a profession: systematic theory, autonomy, community sanction, ethical codes and a culture ( 1966). , on the other hand, argues that there are four values associated with professionalism: expertise, autonomy, commitment, and responsibility (1963). identifies five characteristics of an archival profession: specialized knowledge or theory, community sanction, professional cohesion, culture, and institutionalized altruism (1994). Abbott defines a fully formed profession as an organized body of experts who apply some particular form of esoteric knowledge to particular cases (1988). Housing managers are often referred to as professionals, and housing management is seen as one of the local government professions.  (1990) point out that to be considered as a professional housing manager the following criteria should be considered.  Ø  the degreed of tenant satisfaction (or seller satisfaction in a new purchase) with the current manager, Ø  the degree of professional attainment as measured by designations, Ø  the capability to produce reports and analyze data, and Ø  the overall management plan of what services will be provided for what fee. These areas are interrelated and the extent to which housing managers are designated could indicate greater competence in any or all of these areas.   Knowledge By criterion, housing managers are weakly professionalized by virtue of their position in local government where councilors and other professional groups such as architects can exert control over their work. Also, the professional body, the Chartered Institute of Housing, does not control entry to the profession and many housing managers are not formally qualified in housing. Therefore, housing managers are on relatively weak ground in arguing that there is a strong and distinct body of professional knowledge (1994,). Established professions have systems of instruction and training together with entry by examination and other formal prerequisites. They are believed to possess and enforce some kind of code of ethics or rules of behavior. They are also thought to rely on fees for services. These various definitions are, in fact, closely linked and comprise the same fundamental principles of what constitutes a profession.     Task The view, formerly taken for granted, of the role of ‘professional’, expert, housing officer is challenged in a number of ways by the consumerist and citizenship models. In the consumerist model housing managers seek to take account of the views of individual tenants, thus accepting implicitly that ‘professionals’ do not know everything. In the citizenship model tenants are encouraged to play an active role in influencing the policy and management process, again implying a degree of humility on the part of housing managers which does not accord well with the traditional view of the objective expert. Thus whatever view of their role housing managers hold, it has implications for their approach to their relationship with tenants and tenants’ groups.   Decision Making The traditional model of local government sees housing managers as holding expertise and skills which justify their authority in managing the council housing stock with little or no reference to the tenants. Where tenants are ‘involved’ in management it is largely by having information provided by the professionals rather than by joining in negotiations, consultation or even by providing information to the professionals. (1988) argues that few people would claim that the profession of housing management had fully established itself on the model of the professions that have traditionally dominated local government. The profession has not yet gained the status conceded to other professions, nor the dominance in the housing department characteristic of other departments of the local authority (1988)   Authority There is a slow establishment of housing as a separate occupational category in the local government bureaucracy. Housing departments staffed with specialist housing managers were only slowly established as the stock of council housing built up after 1919. Even today the housing work of local authorities is concerned with influencing the private provision of housing, as well as the management of council housing so town and country planners, environmental health officers and building control officers, for example, have a role in regulating the development or management of housing in the private sector. Within the council housing sector, other professionals, such as architects, have a more influential role in the design of council housing than housing managers: accountants may be responsible for the collection of rents; and engineers may be responsible for the maintenance of the stock (1987). Housing management is ill-defined as an occupational category. This ambiguity can be seen, it is sometimes argued, when housing is compared with other local government professions such as town planning, environmental health and social work. Identity The growth of local authority housing from 1919 did not lead to a new professional group taking charge of housing-related work in local government. The housing was managed by officers from a variety of local government backgrounds or disciplines such as public health, surveying or finance reflecting the variety of departments holding some responsibility for housing development and administration at that time (1987). Work The alternative local authority approach was based, as Power (1987) argues, largely on the management of property rather than people. It was an impersonal form of management based on a written contract and established procedures. However, appropriate standards of behavior were stipulated where it was considered that the property could be misused or damaged, or other tenants could be adversely affected. Career A third reason for the low professional esteem of housing managers is the generally low educational background of many housing staff. No professional qualification has the same status in housing work as membership of the  has in town planning, for example.  (1988) acclaimed that housing management may not constitute a profession in the sense established by the older professions. The very use of the word ‘management’ to describe the profession suggests not a profession, but a particular, management role, requiring specialist skills or knowledge (1988) Education Another indicator of a stronger ‘professional’ orientation is that more housing managers have come into housing from higher education. However, relatively larger numbers of graduates and qualified staff have been employed by housing associations than local authorities, possibly affecting the relative status of housing work in local government and housing associations (1993), and the majority of housing managers enter their occupation from school or some other job. Most definitions of a profession focus on theory-based education as opposed to on-the-job training, existence of professional bodies responsible for regulating a profession, and a service orientation among the practitioners. Even though in the case of management, some of the characteristics of a full profession (1988) have not yet developed, the existence of others, such as professional education and training, professional organizations, professional literature, and codes of ethics (1998) are sufficient to accord it the elevated status of a profession. Role Housing managers have a low professional status and an ambiguous role. Nevertheless, there have been attempts to sustain professional associations and to stimulate a stronger ‘professional’ ethic which values training and education. Attempts to define more clearly the nature of the tasks of housing management and therefore to define the professional skills and knowledge needed are, however, periodically overtaken by new developments which alter the environment in which housing managers work. As according to , “housing management like other management is a profession as it is also subject to analysis and needs laborious study and experimenting of all sorts, just the same as any other profession based upon any other science.” (1923) Therefore, the relative lack of emphasis on professional skills and training may be due to a smaller emphasis on a professional knowledge base needed to carry out the job. In other words, housing managers may be seen as managers with some professional knowledge and skills rather than professionals with some management knowledge and skills. Insight into the weak professional status of housing managers in council housing today can be gained through an historical perspective as to Octavia Hill’s ‘system’ was the personal relationship between landlord and tenant (1992). Hill placed emphasis on decentralized management and on putting responsibility for tenant welfare as well us property maintenance in the hands of the housing manager. Her followers were influential in the management of the early housing associations (1980), but this approach was not generally adopted by local authorities which saw it as expensive, unnecessary and possibly threatening to established professional groups in local government.                                   Credit:ivythesis.typepad.com

Professionalization of Housing Management

Professionalization of Housing Management Introduction Shelter, water and food are generally accepted as the basic needs of life. ...

Waterproofing requirements of wet areas in bathroom/laundries

Waterproofing is the process where objects became unaffected by water or resisting water passage, or which are covered with a material that resists or does not allow water passage. Water proofing is important to ensure that the building structure will not be destroyed by water leakage. All buildings and houses contain areas in which there will be the presence of water either as the result of washing or showering. Wet areas are those rooms which provide accommodation of water usage. The Australian Standard 3740 defines two degrees of wetness of such areas. These categories are as follows: Category 1 – Areas like the shower compartments where there is a large amount of free water. Category2 – Areas around fixtures such as baths, basins, sinks, toilets and laundry tubs. Wet areas include bathroom, toilet, laundry and kitchen. The building code requires that these areas be lined with water resistant finishes and that the floors must be equipped with drainage to dispose of free water. The shower and bathrooms are critical areas to ensure that free water will not penetrate the building structure. Authorities have reported that the failure in water proofing is among the main problems of new home owners.    Most of the areas in houses have floors made up of concrete block on ground, suspended concrete floor block, suspended timber floors and with walls constructed of timber or steel studs sheeted in fibre cement or plasterboard. The most common lining materials are water resistant plasterboard (Aquachek, Watershield) and fibre cement sheeting (Villaboard). Water Resistant Plasterboard is similar to normal plasterboard except that its core is impregnated with a wax to inhibit the normally absorbent characteristic of plaster. Fibre Cement Sheeting is a cementaceous board reinforced with cellulose fibres. Both board types are manufactured with a recess along the long edge to allow them to be taped and set. The lining of wet areas with plasterboard should be carried out with the sheets laid horizontally. An exception to this rule is where the whole wall can be covered with a single sheet. Where the sheet is not to be tiled, water resistant plasterboard can be fixed using the normal combination of nails or screws and adhesive. Where the surface is to be tiled, adhesive fixing must not be used and the board must be fixed with nails or screws at 200crs and 150crs at butt joints. Screws are the industry preferred method of fixing. If the tiles are more than 6.5 mm thick, all mechanical fixings shall be at 100 mm centers. Jointing shall be carried out with paper tape set in base-coat (2 coats). Areas not to be tiled are finished with one coat of top coat. Top coating under tiled areas is unsuitable because the surface can be raised providing an unsuitable surface for tiling. Also top coats are water soluble. In lining, it is important to ensure that the appropriate noggins are provided in above sinks, baths and shower trays. Check also location of angles and skirtings    In fiber cements, sheeting shall be carried out horizontally in domestic construction. Vertical sheeting is use in some commercial work. Fixing shall be by screw or nail at 200crs. All joints shall be made with paper tape bedded in base coat (2 coats) under tiles. In having construction floors like concrete it is normal to leave a recess in the slab under shower trays or where the finished floor is laid so that it falls towards the floor waste. Suspended timber floors in wet areas are commonly surfaced with fully compressed. Fibre cement sheet must be 15mm thick for joists at 450crs and 18mm thick for joists at 600crs. The sheet is screw fixed at 450crs to all joists. Where sheets are jointed, the joint shall be bonded with Hydra Epoxy 501 applied to the edges to ensure complete bonding. Hydra Epoxy 501 is a two part, water based epoxy resin, mixed immediately prior to use. If suspended blocks are constructed, the block design frequently does not allow for recesses and any shower trays or falling finishes will need to be accommodated above block level. Australian Standard 3740 lay down where solid surfaces, flashings and membranes shall be installed in relation to showers, baths and wall-mounted fittings. The perimeter of all walls of a wet area shall have a flashing which extends 75 mm up the wall and 50mm across the floor. If showers are constructed into or adjacent to a corner, a flashing shall be installed from the membrane to a height of 1800. The flashing shall extend 40mm each side of the corner for external trays and 75mm for internal membranes. If showers are enclosed, a solid surface shall be provided to a height of 1800 above the floor level within the shower enclosure.  If showers are not enclosed, a solid surface shall extend 1500 (horizontally) from the furthest extension of the shower rose and to a height of 1800 above floor level. A water-proof membrane shall be provided over the floor area of an enclosed shower and extending 75 above finished floor level.  A water-proof membrane shall be provided over the floor area and 1500 (horizontally) from the furthest extension of the shower rose and extending 75mm above finished floor level.  Baths, basins, tubs or other vessels fixed to a wall shall have a waterproof flashing or membrane applied to 150 above the vessel. The definition of a solid surface in Australian Standards 3740 is satisfied by the application of ceramic tiles, fixed with approve waterproof tile cement over fibre cement sheet or water resistant plasterboard. Tiles should be finished with an approved waterproof grout. Perimeter flashing can include pre-formed PVC fibreglass reinforced plastic (FRP), corrosion resistant metal or flexible synthetic material such as Hyperlon. The angle can be formed on site from fibreglass reinforced plastic, epoxy resin or acrylic emulsion.   References 1.    Australian National Training Authority, Wateproofing to Wet Areas [Online] Available at: http://www.atpl.net.au/sample/pdf/atpsample_1552.pdf [Accessed 23 Feb 2010] 2.    Lafarge Plasterboards, Wet Areas Using plaster Boards [Online] Available at: http://www.lafargeplasterboard.com.au/systems/wet-areas.php [Accessed 23 Feb 2010] Credit:ivythesis.typepad.com

Waterproofing requirements of wet areas in bathroom/laundries

Waterproofing is the process where objects became unaffected by water or resisting water passage, or which are covered with a material th...