Research Topics: Article Critique Samples

Journal Article Critique and Comparison

Journal Article Critique and Comparison               The main goal of this paper is to analyse and compare 3 journal articles. The first article to be considered is the article by Teichler (2000). It can be said that the main purpose of this article is to determine the relationships between higher education and employment. The main theme is to determine how higher educations have been associated with the growing unemployment rates in various countries, particularly in the United States. The author has argued that there is a significant relationship between this two and that the author aims on providing enough evidences to prove its connections.  The author’s arguments have been supported by the different literatures and other documents relevant to the topic. The author has been able to review these documents to make a sound conclusion about the topic.             The article has been divided in various parts to show clarity and coherences in the discussion of the study. The discussion of the paper is eight-fold. The first part is the discussion of the employment scene where the author highlights the growth of unemployment of graduates in various parts of the world. This is followed by the discussion of the enrolment trends then followed by thew discussion of the research needs. This part gives emphasis on the lack of enough documents that would evidently prove the relation of higher education and employment. The next part Is the discussion of the future perspectives then the diversification of higher education as a response and the emphasis placed on flexibility. This paper also highlights the discussion of the further curricular approaches then the conclusion parts. It can be said that the author has been able to support his arguments by discussing previous studies relevant to the topic. This paper is said to be relevant to know whether higher education approaches has a significant effect on employment aspects of students. In addition, this is significant to determine the direct cause of the rapid growth of unemployment among graduates.  In addition, the article is also significant on identifying whether the university degree is really helpful in obtaining a career in the business world. Based on the study, it is said that not all graduates are given the chance to work in relation with their course and the article revealed that there are more graduates who do not have jobs compared to those who do not earn a degree in a university.             It can be said that the whole article has been able to provide clear discussion on how higher education relates with the employment aspects. The authors have been able to give justice to his arguments. In addition, this paper has also been able to provide some recommendations on how higher education would solve the issue of unemployment growth.  The author gives evidences and proofs on how graduate employment has become biased and insufficient in spite of the effort of higher education.  However, this article has still some flaws which include the inability of the author to provide clear discussion of each of the section, there are some parts which are highly relevant but other parts are seen to be unsuitable for the article.               The second article to be discussed is the work of Elias and Purcell (2004). Primarily, the main purpose of this paper is to determine whether the context of mass higher education is working in terms of reducing unemployment rates. The main theme is to investigate the labour market experiences of recent graduates and relates it to the existence of higher education. The author’s argument is that the expansion of higher education affects employment of the graduates. The arguments of the authors of this article have been supported by primary and secondary data. The primary source of data came from the direct investigation conducted with a large sample of 1995 graduates and the secondary support came from evidences on the graduates earning premiums and change in the occupation structure of UK. In addition, support also came from the documents on mass higher education. The article has been divided into sections to discuss the argument and findings in an organized manner. The first part is the introduction where the context, aims and themes of the article has been discussed. The second part reviews the occupation structure and graduate jobs which present different quantitative and qualitative data. The next part discusses the analysis of the earning premiums of the graduates which presents the problems and earlier evidence about earnings measurement.  The next part gives emphasis on the use of graduates’ skills and knowledge which identifies whether the graduates has been able to use their skills and knowledge with their professions. The next section of the paper focuses on providing details about the new and niche graduate jobs. This part gives the differences between the new graduate occupations and niche graduate occupations and the last part provides the conclusion on the findings of the study.             It can be said that through the evidences and the use of qualitative and quantitative approach, the authors have been able to support their arguments and provide sound conclusion regarding the topic. This is paper has a lot of significance in education, employment institution and graduates. This paper is significant because it helps educators to know the effect of mass higher education that they have implemented in terms of employment of the graduates.  In addition, the result of this research is also significant for students and graduates since this paper provides trending on the possibility of the graduates to have a job that would be used their skills and knowledge as part of their profession.  The ability of the research to provide details on the premiums and earnings of the graduates helps the students and educators know the current economic or financial condition of the graduates.             Analysis shows that using primary and secondary evidences have been the major strengths of this study to provide conclusion based on the aim and purpose. Through the use of this information, the authors have been able to determine whether mass higher education is really working for the graduates to have a better job employment in the future.  On one hand, the major weakness of this paper is the inability of the author to discuss thoroughly the mass higher education and its relevance with the employment of graduates.             The third article to be given emphasis is the work of Knight and Yorke (2002).  The main aim of this paper is to discuss the relationship between curriculum and the employability of the graduates.  The main argument of the authors is that employability can be embedded in various academic subjects in higher education without having to compromise core academic freedoms. The author’s arguments in this paper have been supported by the review of relevant studies and other documents and academic transformation projects conducted. In addition, the authors argued that there is a personal element which tends to get overlooked by academic knowledge about employability and this include the portmanteau of self-belief or the self-theories which the students brings towards higher education. In this regard, the conception of the authors of employability is that it is being pushed to the transferable skills. The authors have been supported by various theories relative to employability.  Furthermore, support also came from SKILLS plus projects and the USEM models which are relevant to the changing curriculum of higher education. The article has been divided in various parts to show coherence and clarity of the topic. The first part discusses the aspects of employability and the difference between graduate employability and graduate level employment. The authors defined graduate employability as the possession of the skills, understandings and personal attributes which is important to adequately perform in a graduate-level job. The next part discusses the USEM model which stands for Understanding, skills which can be subject specific or generic, Efficacy beliefs or self theories aspect and the Metacognition which include reflection. The next part discusses the context of self-theories and employability and give emphasis the student’s belief in malleability. The next section discusses the implication on the emphasis on self theories which discusses four implications. This paper also discusses the context of SKILLS PLUS project and its early outcomes as part of the curriculum. It can be said that this through this evidences, the authors have been able to meet or achieve their goals and justify their arguments. It can be said that this paper is significant to school institutions, students or graduates and the government. This is important in the school institutions because it provides important details regarding the significance of curriculum in enhancing student’s knowledge and skills to prepare them for future jobs. On one hand, this is significant for students to know how self theory affects their choice of employability.  Furthermore, this paper is significant for it enables the government to determine how they will be helpful in enhancing the employability of students and graduates. The major strength of this research is with regards to the theories and models presented which helps the reader understand how this can be related to employability context. However, this paper has some flaws which affect the overall objective of the study.  Based on the analysis, the authors have not been able to discuss thoroughly how curriculum relates with employability. In addition, the flow of the discussion is somewhat illogical as the authors presented various theories which may not be closely relevant to the topic of the research.                PART C: Comparative Matrix     Teichler Knight and Yorke Elias and Purcell Some suggestions: Higher Education System The author suggests that higher education must be able to have a more intensive curriculum to help students have a secure and stable job The authors suggest that higher education should be transformed so as to meet the employability needs of the students or graduates The authors suggest the higher education should be thoroughly investigated to determine whether it is working or not Skills/Attributes     The skills and attributions of this research lie on the ability of the higher education to provide proper curriculum that enhances the skills and knowledge of the graduates. In this research self-enhancement is the skills attribution of this study. In addition, the meta cognition skills is given emphasis in this study, Personal skills and attributes have been given emphasis on this paper. Herein the author believed that through the help of higher education, students will be able to have a more competent skills. Employability   This paper has not been able to give enough focus with the context of employability, since its main focus is to determine the relationship of higher education with graduate’s employment. this study, the authors have been able to discuss the aspects of employability giving their own definition of employability which can be embedded in academic subjects. In this paper,  the authors have not been able to give enough emphasis on the aspect of employability since their main aim is to know whether higher education is working. Employer Needs This highlights the fact that employer have different needs which affects the employment opportunities of the students. The paper highlights the importance of self-efficacy of the graduates to meet the need of the employers. This paper gives details on how the graduates have been compensated by their employer who needs skilful and knowledgeable employees. Lifelong Learning In terms of life long learning, it is said that the author highlights life long learning on both the higher education and the graduates. Life long learning is being emphasis among employees to ensure that their personal skills and knowledge will be improved and enhanced for their future employment. Life long learning is considered for graduates to ensure their success in their future careers.     Reference Elias, P., Purcell, K. (2004), “Is mass higher education working? Evidence from the graduate labour market experiences of recent graduates”, National Institute Economic Review, No.190, pp.60-74.   Knight, P.T. and Yorke, M. (2002). “Employability Through the Curriculum”, Tertiary Education and Management, 8(4), pp. 261-276.   Teichler, U. (2000). “New Perspectives of the Relationships between Higher Education and Employment”, Tertiary Education and Management, 6(2), pp. 79-92.                         Word count 1941, 8 pages thanks Credit:ivythesis.typepad.com

Journal Article Critique and Comparison

Journal Article Critique and Comparison The main goal of this paper is to analyse and compare 3 journal articles. The ...

Women and men in language: an analysis of seminaturalistic person descriptions – Article Critique

Women and men in language: an analysis of seminaturalistic person descriptions – Article Critique     Ann Weatherall is interested in areas of social psychology of language and communication, gender, and feminist psychology, which encouraged her to write this research article as part of a doctoral dissertation. Published in Human Communication Research in December 1998, the article of above title explores on references to men and women in prompted but impromptu discussions of a popular television program in Britain – Coronation Street. This article critique focuses on evaluation of the following aspects of the mentioned research article: a) the broad area (topic) covered; b) the research question(s) or problem(s); c) the scope and/or approach; d) the strengths and weaknesses; e) the relevance to general debates within the field; and f) the originality/distinctiveness.   Broad area (topic) covered Hannah and Murachver (2007) assert that there have been numerous written accounts on how and why language differs between women and men. This makes the area extensive in terms of coverage. It could be considered that the broad area covered in the research article is the study of language and communication or linguistics. However, it is also argued that there are other areas in which the research article touches to a certain degree of effect and/or importance, including social sciences such as sociology, anthropology, and so on. On this given case, the study of language and communication is preferred to be the most important broad area (topic) covered and associated. Understanding language and communication has been an extensive area of empirical studies in all areas of specialization. Due to the indispensable function of language as communication tool for all humans regardless of generation, further understanding of its underlying principles, applications, and related issues is important. The study of language and communication paves way to related understanding of other aspects where language and communication is applied. In Weatherall’s research article, the application of language and communication is seen on how it was used in conversations particularly in terms of gender orientation. The first sentences of the research article recognizes the significant contribution of the study of language and communication in understanding how gender relations are reflected, created, and sustained in daily interaction. Recognizing this contribution is rooted on early empirical and theoretical researches that attempt to provide conclusive explanations in response to the growing debate on language and communication against gender relations particularly on the case of gender bias on women. The issues on gender bias, discrimination, and inequality on women have existed ever since the early ages. Since then, there are earlier attempts to address such issues yet it did not prosper as expected. Not until the movement for gender equality gradually evolved in the late 19th century and was fuelled by women movements in the 20th century; the mild, moderate and radical feminist groups mustered their organizing influence to slowly inflict change in the society (Kimmel, 2000, pp. 324), the controversy on men and women continuously lead to emergent areas of research and specialization. The study of language and communication resulted to specific sub-division in reference to relevant effects to other areas. It shed light and awareness on areas related to social hierarchy, order, culture, and so on. On this research article, the author explored the how power and identity are communicated through the various ways men and women are referred to. There has been less empirical investigation and theoretical development on this subject during those times. More so, Weatherall aims to broaden and update the past works on sex bias particularly in relation to the case of language. The sociological and anthropological perspectives of this research article are linked with language itself, power, identity, social change, hierarchy, order, and culture of both men and women. Considering the broad area of the study of language and communication or linguistic as whole, this research article is recognized to be the base point of subsequent research studies supporting or challenging its given findings.       Research question(s) or problem(s)             Weatherall’s research article works on single and primary research question: Can the language used to describe women and men in seminaturalistic conversations be understood as being biased against women? This single and primary research question is supported by three hypotheses: <ul style="margin-top: 0in; margin-bottom: 0in" type="disc"> <li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%"> H1: Male participants will use more first-name-only forms when describing female characters than when describing male characters and more full-name forms when describing male characters than when describing female characters.</li> <li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%"> H2a: Female characters will be referred to more often using kin terms than will male characters.</li> <li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%"> H2b: Descriptions of female characters will include more references to others than will descriptions of male characters.</li> <li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%"> H2c: Job titles will be used more often in descriptions of male characters than in descriptions of female characters.</li> <li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%"> H3: There will be more positive lexical items used to refer to male characters than to refer to female characters.</li> </ul> These hypotheses were based and guided by the three types of sexist language promulgated by Henley (1987) – language that ignores women, language that defines women narrowly, and language that depreciates women. Like in any other research activities, these set of hypotheses were tested in accordance to the findings of the study.             Furthermore, the research article has several aims. These aims may be considered as major areas in which the whole research activity is directed. On page 278 of the article, it was stated that: “One of the aims of the present research was to examine claims about sexism in language by looking at how men and women were referred to in impromptu language use”. This aim complements the existing body of researches mainly focusing on demonstrating the forms of linguistic sex bias used in a spoken framework. Because understanding the way how gender categories were presented in conversation is important, it is of further recognized especially on developing knowledge that explain how social biases were communicated in social interaction. Another aim of Weatherall’s research article is articulated in page 279: “The aim of the study was to explore a conversational corpus for evidence of how sex bias is articulated in spontaneous descriptions of people”. This aim is considered as the most fundamental as the whole study mainly centers its details on collecting evidences on the quality of communication in reflection to sex bias especially on the case of spontaneous descriptions of people. The content of descriptions articulated by the participants is subjected toward examination on the possibility of the occurrence of any evidence of sex bias. According to Saunders and colleagues (2007, pp. 30), research question is the subject in which the research process will address. In frequent instances, it is also the precursor of research objectives. The important thing to consider in defining research question is its ability to have descriptive answer. Weatherall is excellent on this criterion. The research question is ‘just right’ (Clough & Nutbrown, 2002, pp. 34), which means “just right for investigation at this time, by this researcher in this setting”.   Scope and/or approach             The research article is limited in finding out if the language used to describe women and men in seminaturalistic conversations can be understood as being biased against women using both qualitative and quantitative approaches. Weatherall employed specified research methods from participant selection, design, materials, procedure, and stages of analysis. It could be deemed that the author’s intention of identifying the specific areas of the methodology is effective not only on understanding how the findings were gathered and measured; rather it also addresses the issue of validity and reliability. On the aspect of participant selection, 146 students, consisting of 59 males and 87 females enrolled in their first year Culture and Communication course at an unidentified university in England were asked to answer a television-viewing behavior questionnaire. By using a chi-square analysis, the number of students as participants is reduced to 80 with the knowledge that they would be required to provide description on characters in popular television program in Britain entitled Coronation Street. On the other hand, the design used in the study is a median-split method. Four dyad types were formulated by pairing a total of 32 regular and 32 irregular viewers, thus resulting to the following pairs: “male regular and male irregular, male regular and female irregular, female regular and male irregular, and female regular and female irregular”. The reasons causal to the construction of dyad types are: “to promote detailed discussions of the program and to control for any sex differences in the use of personal references”. On the case of research materials, the author made use of a set of six images as stimuli taken from stills of the program. These images are representations of each character present in a single episode of Coronation Street broadcasted on April 22, 1991 that are also equal in number consisting of 7 males and 7 females plus one temporary female character. The male characters featured during the identified episode include Phil Jennings, Des Barnes, Andy MacDonald, Jim MacDonald, Steve MacDonald, Martin Platt, and Alf Roberts. Meanwhile, the female characters include Deirdre Barlow, Mavis Wilton, Stephanie Barnes, Phyllis Pearce, Liz MacDonald, Rita Fairclough, Audrey Roberts, and Mrs. Shaw (temporary character). The procedure used by Weatherall is simply characterized by situating each dyad in a room fitted with video cameras. The participants were given a folder containing images taken from the episode and arranged in random order different for each dyad. Then, the dyads started interacting with each others by providing relevant descriptions about the pictures. The conversations were recorded in video and transcribed afterwards. An interesting feature of the procedure is that the researcher did not inform the participants about the purpose of the research in advance. This plays a significant role on the objectivity of their descriptions. Lastly, the stages of analysis are quite complex yet remaining systematic. It began with a general summary of the descriptions provided by the participants. There were some adjustments that were done as the participants made reference to other characters of the program that did not appeared on the said episode and also to characters of other programs. The researcher focused on prompted references for analysis. Following this stage is the role of two coders in counting and categorizing the data, thus coming up with the following categories: “first name only, full name, kinship term (e.g., mother, father), job title, and other”. Kappa was used to calculate the reliability between the two coders resulting to good agreement. In the end stages of analysis, results were obtained and presented, and the discussion commenced.             Strengths and weaknesses             The strengths of the research include its originality by using a popular television program, comprehensive set of research method and qualitative and quantitative approaches used, and its significant research results particularly in the broad area of the study of language and communication or linguistics. On the contrary, the weaknesses of the research were mainly associated on the relevant issues that affect the method used and overall presentation such as the ethical concern on the participants and the use of references that were published way back the 1960s.             The concept is original in terms of using a popular television program in Britain those years. It has been a trend in language and communication studies that communication vehicles are subject of empirical and theoretical activities including novels and short stories and British soap opera and other fictional works. Weatherall’s attempt to explore Coronation Street is ‘just right’. Further, the comprehensive set of research method and qualitative and quantitative approaches used all throughout the research process can be considered as general solution to the drawbacks of each method or approach used in research. The wide-ranging and multiple tools used in quantitative approach of analysis addresses the issue of validity and reliability while the qualitative approach of analysis supported the limited ability of numbers to provide a complete description in response to a research question or problem. Lastly, significant research results elicited from the research activity contributes in bridging the identified gaps in the existing body of literatures about the research subject during those years. It was also assumed that this research article was the base point of subsequent research studies supporting or challenging its given findings. However, it must be considered that the findings found in this research article should be supported by other factors that are not included in its totality yet believed to have some degree of importance or effect (e.g. political and social or societal beliefs of the participants).             Although Weatherall acknowledged the difficulties in studying language in the first parts of the research article, she still violated the ethical concern on the participants by not confirming to the standard procedures in conducting research study using people as key participants. The issue of confidentiality was not pointed out in any part of the research. Even if the participants were informed about the purpose of the research study and gave positive feedback, this must be considerably done prior to their participation for chances of refusal or backing out. Blumberg and associates (2005) and Robson (2002) argue that a researcher must accept any refusal to take part. The use of references that were published way back the 1960s is also considered as weakness because the applicability of the findings of these earlier research studies could be questionable and irrelevant during those years.   Relevance to general debates within the field             The work of Weatherall is relevant to general debates within the field provided that the findings are ‘just right’ in those years or could be up to the present. It provided compelling arguments on the use of language in prompted but impromptu discussions in relation to coming up with evidences of sex bias. The results obtained were used to determine the pervasiveness of sex bias in language and was proven lesser than expected. It also provided recommendation on the aspect of documenting the way on how linguistic bias is routinized or legitimated in different conversational circumstances. On the latter sentences of the research article, Weatherall affirms: “Women’s negative linguistic position relative to men is not universal, but rather is restricted to particular forms and domains” (pp. 290). This may or may not be conclusive yet offered another area of empirical and theoretical scrutiny and development. The possibility of the assumption that this research article was the base point of subsequent research studies supporting or challenging its given findings is also palpable. In general, the effect of this study to the general debate within the field is manifested on its degree of influence to the existing argument of both parties supporting or challenging the use of language and communication in terms of sex bias in women.   Originality/distinctiveness             It is believed that this research study is original in some aspects particularly on the use of popular television program in Britain, comprehensive and multiple tools used in the research method, and its immediacy in providing compelling arguments on the ongoing and increasing general debate within the field. Although the background of the research study mainly includes earlier researches that date back to 1960s, the new set of findings is used to determine the acceptability of the earlier findings and their applicability to the current language and communication discourse. Also, the findings are used to bridge the gap of the previous empirical and theoretical studies and addressing the immediate need of the broad area of the study of language and communication while providing opportunities for further investigation.   References Blumberg, B., Cooper, D. R., & Schindler, P. S. (2005). Business Research Methods. Maidenhead: McGraw Hill.   Clough, P. & Nutbrown, C. (2002). A Student’s Guide to Methodology. London: Sage.   Hannah, A. & Murachver, T. (2007, September). Gender Preferential Responses to Speech. Journal of Language and Social Psychology, 26(3), pp. 274-290.   Henley, N. M. (1987). This species that seeks a new language: On sexism in language and language change. In J. Penfold (Ed.), Women and language in transition (pp. 3-27). New York State University of New York Press.   Kimmel, M. (2000). The Gendered Society. London: Oxford University Press.   Robson, C. (2002). Real World Research, 2nd Edition. London: Blackwell Publishing.   Saunders, M., Lewis, P., & Thornhill, A. (2007). Research methods for business students, 4th Edition. London: Prentice Hall.   Weatherall, A. (1998, December). Women and Men in Language: An Analysis of Seminaturalistic Person Descriptions. Human Communication Research, 25(2), pp. 275-292.     Credit:ivythesis.typepad.com

Women and men in language: an analysis of seminaturalistic person descriptions – Article Critique

Women and men in language: an analysis of seminaturalistic person descriptions – Article Critique Ann Weatherall is interested i...

Article Critique :Instructional Technology and Education Policy By James W. Guthrie

Concise Summary               The article of James W. Guthrie entitled “Instructional Technology and Education Policy” tackles two issues. The first issue is the discussion of the conventional K-12 schools and the exploration of hypotheses that such are reluctant in the adoption of instructional technology. The term ‘techno-phobia’ is justified. There is a misguidance in both current advocates and critics of technology. The existing excessive ‘supply’ of educational technology is also discussed as well as the teachers’ views. The second issue is the exploration of the viewpoint of modern instructional technology empowering a set of providers who might compete with conventional K-12 public schools. The competition that is based in technology may result to development among providers. The creation of a ‘demand’ side of the technology equation is pointed out. Similarly, the role of policy makers is identified. In the conclusion, Guthrie identified the need for change, gave answers or solutions to questions or problems, and presented recommendations that are deemed essential in the issues discussed. The important roles of various people involved are recognized. Research and development is wanted.     Evaluation             The article is well written as it addresses all issues surrounding technology adoption in K-12 schools. Readers of the said article are guided with the existing issues about the subject. In terms of objectivity, Guthrie’s analysis is free from biases. It is highly recommended as and useful for reference purposes.   Application Today, technology is an integral area of study in higher education (e.g. the New Liberal Arts, Science/ Technology/Society, and Industrial and Engineering Technology). With this, it seemed logical that the concepts as well as applications of technology should also be studied in high schools in order to prepare students with the educational base requisite for success in college or plainly for the knowledge on technology and its role in people and society (Erekson and Shumway 2002). It is needed that they must possess extensive technological literacy. Students who gain a level of technological literacy will have the ability to use, manage, assess, and understand technology. Even though technology education is an elective course in many schools (Berry III and Ritz 2004), there are other careers and technical education components of the school curriculum that necessitates the skills obtained form this course. This will serve as an advantage compared to others who did not take the course. If students take up technonolgy-based education, they are expected to have information literacy skills that will be frequently used as they gather input to solve technical problems (Mccade 2001). Additionally, students who are active and take advantage of the many opportunities of technology education develop leadership skills and are encouraged to become technology education teachers in the future (Busby and Howell 2002). A lush employment is waiting for them in the future.     References   Berry III, RQ & Ritz, RQ 2004, “Technology Education-A Resource for Teaching Mathematics,” The Technology Teacher, vol. 63, no. 8, pp. 20+.   Busby, JR & Howell, RT 2002, “Student Organizations: How Important Are They to Technology Education? Students Must Develop a Broader Understanding of Their Role in This Changing, Intensely Technological Culture,” The Technology Teacher, vol. 62, no. 1, pp. 24+.   Erekson, T & Shumway, S 2002, “Technology Education as College Prep as Long as [Negative] Perceptions Exist, College-Bound Students Will Be Less Likely to Enroll in Technology Education Classes,” The Technology Teacher, vol. 61, no. 6, pp. 10+.   Mccade, JM 2001, “Technology Education and Computer Literacy,” The Technology Teacher, vol. 61, no. 2, pp. 9.   Credit:ivythesis.typepad.com

Article Critique :Instructional Technology and Education Policy By James W. Guthrie

Concise Summary The article of James W. Guthrie entitled “Instructional Technology and Education Policy” tackles two iss...

Article Critique

Concise Summary[DB1]                          In his article, Paul Nastu explores the use of open-source software in educational settings, mainly public schools. Open-source software is currently being dominated by closed-source software such as Microsoft Windows and Office. While most people know little about open-source software, such as Linux and Open Office, it offers many advantages over its closed-source counterparts. Open-source software is free or very cheap to distribute and maintain, yet it offers equivalent functionality of closed-source software. Schools can save thousands of dollars a year in licensing fees alone by using open-source software. Linux based servers and computer labs are also easier to maintain, cheaper to maintain, more stable, more efficient, more flexible, and much more secure than their Windows based counterparts. Schools using open-source software encounter virtually no maintenance downtime or threat of virus attacks. Schools also save money by salvaging old computers that cannot run current versions of Windows but run Linux without a problem.             Nastu recognizes that implementing open-source software into a school system has its drawbacks as well. The biggest problem is that open-source software requires higher levels of computer knowledge and skill than Windows does. Consequently, increased staff training is required. Schools will also have a hard time employing an IT staff that is fluent in Linux – a must if the full benefits of Linux are to be reaped. Business students will also find themselves at a disadvantage as most businesses run off of Microsoft software. School leaders will have to battle their staff’s resistance to change, a commonly cited problem. While an extensive array of educational software is available for Linux, many popular programs are not yet supported. Most educators already using open-source software recommend gradually implementing it into a school system and that school leaders make their software needs known to the Linux community.   Evaluation[DB2]                          Nastu does an excellent job in informing the reader about the use of open-source software in school systems. The content of this article is highly objective. Nastu presents the advantages and disadvantages of using open-source software equally and thoroughly. The reader is not influenced by Nastu’s personal opinions on the subject, as they are completely left out of the article. This article opens educators’ eyes to a very practical and viable alternative to closed-source software, while maintaining a balanced view of the potential drawbacks. I have no problems with this article and highly recommend it as an introductory article for any educator interested in using open-source software.   Application[DB3]                This article is highly relevant to my studies of educational software. In essence, the software on a computer dictates the usefulness and functionality of the machine. It is the means in which the user interacts with the hardware. Not knowing how to use a computer’s software renders its hardware as useless. If the trend of using open-source software continues to grow, then I will be required to learn how to use it in order to be an effective educator. Computers are an integral part of an effective learning environment. If I am not capable of using a computer, my effectiveness as a teacher will decrease dramatically.    [DB1]Notice that the critique contains a concise summary of a paragraph or two.  And this summary demonstrates insightful understanding of the article, and is written in the author’s own words.  [DB2]Notice how the author interprets and makes judgments of certain findings in the summary.  [DB3]The application section required the author to derive the significance, relevance and importance of the article.  These three themes were derived particularly in the context of and linkage to what the author learned of this article.  And so, it is important to explain how the article’s findings are linked to what is learned and taught in EDOL 633. Credit:ivythesis.typepad.com

Article Critique

Concise Summary [DB1] In his article, Paul Nastu explores the use of open-source software in educational set...

A Critique on The Principals as Technology Leader

The Principals as Technology Leader               This book investigates the intricacies and rapidity of change and implementation of technology in schools. It glances at contemporary research while providing procedures and guidelines to progress and planning, and includes sample technology plans. Moreover, the book underscores instructional leadership and prospectus, the digital divide between needs and availability, needs assessment, strategic planning, staff technophobia, TSSA (Technology Standards for School Administrators) standards, constructivism and betrothed learning, and community support. It presses on the argument for staff development and technology implementation that will enhance student achievement, rather than relying on outdated methods of drill and practice. The book contains 10 chapters in which each specifically underlines the relevance of technology, its implementation process and its role in the student learning and in educational system in general. Since the book catered for principals or school administrators, the techniques for enforcement of training and knowledge base should be observed in response to the rapid changes both in education and technology. The book explicitly calls to answer prevalent questions. First, to correct the deficiencies related to technology occurred within education system and leadership of administrators. Second, the ability of educational leaders to integrate and use technology programs in the entire curriculum without any grave effects or resistance from the lower ranks. Third, the book seeks to provide a light to principals and administrators concerning the concept of supporting technology. Fourth, the author layouts effective strategic designs that can be used by principals or administrators to test instructors’ and students’ participation and reaction toward technology fluency and knowledge in navigating the complex portal of internet web. The author’s intention is to provide a very detailed and comprehensive explanation and specific plan designed to help school principals and other educational leaders become managers and facilitators of successful and appropriate use of technology in our schools. This approach focuses on applicable and relevant professional development programs for teachers that in turn will affect student achievement.   The author discusses the traditional issues on strategic planning and designing effective development programs. It talks about how principals and administrators can manage, lead, and sustain effective technology implementation. The dealing with teachers and other resistant elements in the implementation of technology programs are factors in which played a detriment to the process of technological implementation. Furthermore, the technique and strategy on how principals react and deal with resisters and reactionary individuals is imperative to consider.   To carry off improvement in technology implementation, principals and administrators must be willing to modify existing leadership practices evidenced in most schools and cooperation in transforming the traditional leadership skills, knowledge, and temperaments. Today’s rapidly changing environment requires the principal as technology leader to become involved in discerning, assessing, establishing, and managing new technologies of all kinds, while keeping teachings and students learning as the guide and driving force behind it all. Much of the author’s doctrines and teachings in the book explore more on the side of technology trying to fit in with the educational environment. The leading proposition which the author would like to tell its audience in the academe is the vital role of technology in the learning process of students and how they can gain much knowledge and competencies through exploiting technologies. However, the author with his much emphasis on the leadership traits of principals in dealing with technological implementation forgot to realize that technology is not the “all” of progress and development, rather, should recognize the powerful role of educators in inculcating raw knowledge to students. Technology can only be a means and not an end. In my point of view, principals, though, are technology leaders, should always remember that in order effectively discharge the implementation of technology, collective effort and support from the powerful group under their ranks are important, principals are designers but instructors and students are implementers. Hence, the author provides a good framework for principals and educators in dealing with technology and its implementation in the educational system. Moreover, in-depth analysis of the educational system and operations provide principals a ground to examine, understand and eventually make it as an avenue to implement the technology. Credit:ivythesis.typepad.com

A Critique on The Principals as Technology Leader

The Principals as Technology Leader This book investigates the intricacies and rapidity of change and implementation of t...

Article Critique :Routine Care of Peripheral Intravenous Catheters versus Clinically Indicated Replacement: Randomized Controlled Trial

Routine Care of Peripheral Intravenous Catheters versus Clinically Indicated Replacement: Randomized Controlled Trial   By Joan Webster et al. (2008)     Summary of Method and Findings             The objective of the study is to compare routine replacement of intravenous peripheral catheters with replacement only when clinically indicated. The study was conducted at the Tertiary Hospital in Australia and included 755 medical and surgical participants, 379 (intervention group) of which were allocated to catheter replacement only when clinically indicated and 376 (control group) were allocated to routine care of catheter. The researchers employed a randomized controlled trial.             By conducting an experiment involving medical and surgical patients, the researchers recorded a composite measure of catheter failure resulting from phlebitis or infiltration. The result of the experiment yielded no significant difference in catheter failure resulting from phlebitis or infiltration between the control group and the intervention group. 123 of 376 or 33 percent of the patients in the control group needed their catheters to be removed because of phlebitis or infiltration. On the other hand, 143 of 379 or 38 percent of the patients in the intervention group needed their catheters to be removed because of phlebitis or infiltration. When the analysis was based on failure per 1000 device days, no difference could be detected between the groups.               The researchers found that replacing peripheral intravenous catheters when clinically indicated has no effect on the incidence of failure, based on a composite measure of phlebitis or infiltration. The authors also suggested that an in-depth experiment be conducted focusing on phlebitis to arrive to a more significant outcome.   Presentation of the Research             The abstract is very helpful and informative. It gives a brief yet concise information about the research, the subjects and a glimpse at the results. The abstract introduced how different methods were used to conduct and analyze data. Background information and explanations were present throughout the article especially in the introduction. What I found lacking was an in-depth literature review which is important as it lays the foundation for the research.   Execution of the Research             The methodology was listed in several areas of the research paper. The researchers thoroughly discussed the steps including the techniques, strategies, tools that were used. The researcher also discussed who conducted the experiments and who helped in the experiment. The characteristics of the subjects including the selection methods that were used to choose the subjects were also discussed. The results of the study were clearly presented and discussed. Tables and figures were used in order to clearly present the results.   Critical Appraisal               The subjects that were included in the experiment came from a general tertiary referral teaching hospital with several specialties, including medicine, surgery, Orthopaedics, psychiatry, oncology, obstetrics, gynecology, and trauma services. Those who were included in the experiment were patients aging 18 years old and above. The researchers only recruited patients that require multiple or consecutive catheters into the study.             The researchers randomly selected the patients that will be included in the routine care (control group), with catheters scheduled to be replaced every three days according to hospital policy. The researchers employed block randomization. This was done using a computer generated random number list that the researchers prepared. In order to avoid selection bias, the researchers made use of allocation concealment. After the consent and randomization, the research nurse collected baseline personal, clinical, and catheter related data, which included the type of infusate and any additives, drugs injected into the intravenous set and their pH level, type and size of the catheter used, and the site of insertion.             In order to measure the primary outcomes of the experiment, the researchers used a composite measure of catheter failure resulting from phlebitis or infiltration. The researchers also made use of secondary outcomes such as infusion related cost.   Participants             The researchers clearly described the size and major characteristics of the population studied. The researchers also clearly described the method for selecting the sample. There were no suggestion of any limitations or biases in the sample. The sample size meet the suggested guideline for minimum sample size appropriate for quantitative analyses.   Instruments             In measuring the primary outcome, the researchers made use of a composite measure of catheter failure because of phlebitis or infiltration. The researchers also used several secondary outcomes including infusion related cost, which was calculated in two ways – costs associated with catheters inserted for the intermittent administration of intravenous drugs, and cost associated with catheters inserted for continuous infusion.             The researchers made sure that in conducting the experiment, they have the permissions of all the people and organization involved. The instruments used were described including their purpose. The instruments used were appropriate for measuring the intended variables. The researchers also presented evidences in order to validate the appropriateness of the instruments for the intended sample.   Design and Procedures             In order to effectively to compare routine replacement of intravenous peripheral catheters with replacement only when clinically indicated, the research nurse collected baseline personal, clinical, and catheter related data which included the type of infusate and any additives, drugs injected into the intravenous set and their pH level, type and size of catheter used, and the site of insertion. Choice of catheter type and gauge was at the discretion of the nurse or doctor inserting the catheter. Catheter insertion sites were inspected daily by a nurse from the intravenous therapy team and by ward nurses when intravenous solutions were changed or when drugs were added. Because research staff were not responsible for recording the reason for catheter removal, a specially designed form was developed for completion by the nurse removing the cannula. This was to optimize the standardization of reporting outcome measures.             The design and procedures used by the researchers were appropriate for examining the research objectives. The researchers described the procedures in sufficient detail in order for them to be applied to further researches on the subject.               The title appropriately indicates the objective as well as the type of research design (intervention/control/randomized clinical trial). The abstract is well structured and per the journal standards and is complete in presenting the key points of each section of the article. The clinical problem and the study objectives are clearly presented in the abstract and the text of the article. The authors were also able to present the limitations of existing research and a gap in scientific knowledge about the study topic are clearly articulated in the introduction to the article and provide an adequate foundation and rational for the study.               The study used a true experimental study in which subjects were randomly assigned to control over experimental group conditions. The independent variable is the exposure status to the intervention, and this is clearly articulated in the text of the article. A pre-test/post-test design with repeated measures was used, in which baseline data were gathered from the patients prior to the implementation of the intervention in the experimental group. The methods that the researchers employed were clearly explained and the statistical techniques were discussed thoroughly.   The sampling design for this study appears to have been well planned. The study setting was well matched to the sample the researchers sought to obtain. The study recruitment rate was very high. A very good level of detail is provided about the data collection procedures and measures used in the study.   The data analysis plan appears generally appropriate. The results were generally consistent. The overall presentation and clarity of the article are excellent. The researchers were able to present their findings in an organized way and the use of tables and other figures were appropriate and they added to the clarity of the results.   The major strengths of the study were the processes used to eliminate selection bias to ensure allocation concealment. One weakness of the study is it failed to incorporate theoretical perspectives from the related literature. There were no clear review of literature. However, the authors managed to use several significant references in the introduction section. The references that the authors used helped in the overall understanding of the subject. The researchers also included a broad range of participants and did not impose any limitations on how or by whom catheters should be inserted.   One of the weaknesses of the research was that the outcomes were not strictly monitored. More reliable results could have been achieved if a standardized approach was used.     Assessment of Value of Article             The purpose of the study is to compare routine replacement of intravenous peripheral catheters with replacement only when clinically indicated. The researchers’ conclusions to the study are accurate. The conclusions show that replacing peripheral intravenous catheters only when clinically indicated does not reduce the incidence of catheter failure, on the basis of a composite measure of phlebitis or infiltration. The researchers found out that catheters may be safely left in place form longer than 72 hours if no contraindications are present. When catheters are replaced only when clinically indicated 25% of infusion related costs are saved. The researchers were able to establish a new finding that may help the practitioners and patients. The research reveals that it is more effective to change catheters when clinically indicated rather than the standard procedures where in catheters are removed every three days. The research reveals that there were no significant difference between the occurrence of phlebitis or infiltration between removing catheters every three days and removing catheters when clinically indicated. This is an important finding as it will potentially result to the reduction of infusions related costs.   The researchers pointed that larger trials are needed to test their findings using phlebitis alone as a more clinically meaningful outcome. The conclusions are warranted but do not hold implications for catheterization practice. Instead, the conclusions should be used as a springboard to further investigate the implications for catheterization practice, which the authors indicated in the conclusions and recommendations.   Overall I believe that the study makes an important contribution to advancing knowledge regarding catheterization because there is little current research of the subject. Also, it provides valuable information that demonstrates the effect of replacing peripheral intravenous catheters when clinically indicated on the incidence of failure as compared to the established standard.     Credit:ivythesis.typepad.com

Article Critique :Routine Care of Peripheral Intravenous Catheters versus Clinically Indicated Replacement: Randomized Controlled Trial

Routine Care of Peripheral Intravenous Catheters versus Clinically Indicated Replacement: Randomized Controlled Trial By Joan Webster ...

Can Instructional Leaders Be Facilitative Leaders?

Can Instructional Leaders Be Facilitative Leaders? The article entitled can instructional leaders be facilitative leaders? Gave a detailed explanation of the concept behind instructional leadership. The article discussed if instructional leaders can coexist with collaboration. The article was informative and answered things in a point form.  The article was able to understand how instructional leadership and facilitative leadership can be used in schools.  Both the control of the organization and the design of the education product are very different in public and private schools. In public schools, control is vested in democratically controlled bodies-state legislatures, state departments of public instruction, school district boards, and school district appointed officials and administrators. It is the responsibility of those bodies to design and alter the organizational arrangements in schools and to determine the form of education they produce. In the main, for private schools these tasks are highly decentralized (Duke 2002). Public and private schools differ considerably in terms of accountability-both to whom they are accountable and by what means. Public schools-created, regulated, and designed by democratically selected officials-are accountable to the public, which both uses the schools and pays for them McGhee 2003).   Political authorities outside the school establish the methods and measures of accountability. These may include minimal reporting of student progress to parents via report cards and achievement testing, or it may include elaborate measures of pupil success reported at the individual, school, district, or state level. In the last decade, public schools have certainly moved from the former to the latter in many states. Private schools may use many of the same accountability measures, but they differ in crucial ways. Private schools are primarily accountable to their clients and only their clients; and second, they develop and control the accountability systems internally.   Most schools had formal boards of directors, including parents, community members, and often patrons or their representatives. They also usually had formal by-laws, ranging from detailed constitutional handbooks to smaller sets of procedures and lists of responsibilities. In most schools, parents were well represented on boards and key committees. In all of the schools except two alternative programs, there were also formal parent organizations. In several schools, elaborate and well-functioning committees were also utilized. The most common were finance, fund-raising, and personnel. But some schools also had committees for student admission and expulsion, curriculum, buildings, and even marketing (Sallis 2002). Schools varied considerably in terms of their financial accountability procedures. The majority employed some variant of accounting and outside auditing procedures legislated for nonprofit organizations. The customers and clients of the education service such as students, parents and the community deserve the best possible quality of education. This is the moral high ground in education and one of the few areas of educational discussion where there is little dissent (Witte 2000).   It is the duty of educational professionals and administrators to have an overriding concern to provide the very best possible educational opportunities. Closely linked to the moral imperative is the professional imperative. Professionalism implies a commitment to the needs of students and an obligation to meet their needs by employing the most appropriate pedagogic practices. Educators have a professional duty to improve the quality of education and this, of course, places a considerable burden on teachers and administrators to ensure that both classroom practice and the management of the institution are operating to the highest possible standards. Competition is a reality in the world of education. Falling enrolments can lead to staff redundancies and ultimately the viability of the institution can be under threat (Lick & Mullen 1999). Educationalists can meet the challenge of competition by working to improve the quality of their service and of their curriculum delivery mechanisms. The importance of total quality management (TQM) to survival is that it is a customer-driven process, focusing on the needs of clients and providing mechanisms to respond to their needs and wants. Competition requires strategies that clearly differentiate institutions from their competitors. Quality may sometimes be the only differentiating factor for an institution. Focusing on the needs of the customer, which is at the heart of quality, is one of the most effective means of facing the competition and surviving. Schools and colleges are part of their communities and as such they must meet the political demands for education to be more accountable and publicly demonstrate the high standards. TQM supports the accountability imperative by promoting objective and measurable outcomes of the educational process and provides mechanisms for quality improvement. Quality improvement becomes increasingly important as institutions achieve greater control over their own affairs. Greater freedom has to be matched by greater accountability. Institutions have to demonstrate that they are able to deliver what is required of them (Blechman & Goonen 1999).  The article proves to be a good help in running private and public schools at a better level.   References Blechman, RS & Goonen, NM 1999, Higher education administration: A guide to legal, ethical, and practical issues, Greenwood Press, Westport, CT.   Duke, C 2002, Managing the learning university, Open University Press, Philadelphia.   Lick, DW & Mullen, CA 1999, New directions in mentoring: Creating a culture of synergy, Falmer Press, London.   McGhee, P 2003, The academic quality handbook: Enhancing higher education in universities and further education colleges, Kogan Page, London.   Sallis, E 2002, Total quality management in education, Kogan Page, London.   Witte, JF 2000, The market approach to education: An analysis of America’s first voucher program, Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ.   Credit:ivythesis.typepad.com

Can Instructional Leaders Be Facilitative Leaders?

Can Instructional Leaders Be Facilitative Leaders? The article entitled can instructional leaders be facilitative leaders? Gave a detaile...

Critical review of methodological approaches

Introduction There are two methodological approaches in social research namely quantitative and qualitative approach. Quantitative research is a genre which uses a special language which appears to exhibit some similarity to the ways in which scientists talk about how they investigate the natural order of variables, control, measurement, experiment. This superficial imagery reflects the tendency for quantitative research to be under-pinned by a natural science model (Bryman 1995). Quantitative research’s goal is to make use of mathematical data to understand natural phenomena. In some instances Quantitative research allows the use of proxies as temporary replacements for quantities that cannot be directly measured.  In contrast, qualitative researchers usually observe from a phenomenological perspective; they immerse themselves in natural environments and watch a situation as a diffuse, ambiguous entity and allow themselves to be struck with certain peculiarities or interesting happenings (Potter 1996). Qualitative research intends to find theories that would explain the relationship of one variable with another variable through qualitative elements or components in research. These qualitative elements do not have standard measures; rather, they are behavior, attitudes, opinions, and beliefs. The qualitative research is described as multi-method in focus, involving an interpretative, naturalistic approach to its subject matter. A qualitative researching procedure acts on studying things in their natural settings, attempting to make sense of situations, or interpret events in terms of the meanings people bring to them.   Part 1 The research questions for each article One often thinks of research as a cumulative endeavor by which bricks of empirical evidence are laid one on top of the other to form a building of knowledge. Long before the building is complete, people often construct theories to predict the building’s looks and functionality, and further research provides additional bricks of knowledge that can be used to confirm, or refine, the theories. Although this architectural analogy may bear a close similarity to how research and theory progress in the natural sciences, people would argue that the analogy is more of an idealization than a reality when dealing with educational research. In many cases, the construction or refinement of a theory is hampered by the very technique used to answer research questions. That is, the techniques and measures used to answer research questions, especially in the early stages of developing a theory, drive both the kinds of research questions one can ask and the refinement of the theory itself. Having a set of well-defined research questions precedes the selection of measuring techniques for investigating them (Kelly & Lesh 2000). For the research on Digital living the main research question focuses on knowing the changing patterns of social innovation of the internet. Other questions include how to understand some of the policy and commercial opportunities the internet presents. For the research on Internet Use and sociability in China the research question focuses on how Internet users deal with their online and offline worlds. Other questions that the paper would touch on include what would happen if one of the worlds of internet user gets affected by the other world.   Methodological approach Until relatively recently, the verb research was somewhat confined in the methods to choose among, but now the possibilities are highly varied. Contemporary educational researchers can borrow from the methodological advances in the traditional associated disciplines as well as from the newer methodologies that have gained acceptance in the field of education. Previous skepticism about the validity of methods outside the narrow domain of experimental research has given way to a more healthy respect for a wide range of methods which have contributed to the advancement of education. The beginner, however, should beware that the more eclectic approach to educational research presents risk of a decline in research standards (Anderson 1998). The best researchers are experts in the methodology they follow. Those who combine methods and appear to take more licenses, normally have a sound grounding in the separate methods which they use in combinations. The best route to valid research is to learn the various methods systematically and in depth. Whatever the approach one follows, there should be a thorough description of the key ingredients, enabling any other researcher to understand what was done and replicate it if he or she so desires. The precise nature of the information varies according to the method chosen and what follows is a generalized schema with qualifications noted when appropriate (Anderson 1998). The research on Digital living made use of a combination of qualitative and quantitative methodologies while the research on Internet use and sociability in China made use of solely quantitative methodologies.   Methods employed Surveys and experiments are probably the main vehicles of quantitative research. The analysis of previously collected data, like official statistics on crime, suicide, unemployment, health, and so on, can be subsumed within the tradition of quantitative research. Because concepts in the social sciences are frequently believed to be abstract, there is seen to be a need to provide operational definitions whereby their degrees of variation and co-variation may be measured. Data are collected by questionnaires or other data gathering devices.  Once the survey or experimental data have been collected, they are then analyzed so that the causal connection specified by the hypothesis can be verified or rejected. The resulting findings then feed back into, and are absorbed by, the theory that set the whole process going in the first place (Bryman 1992).The research on Digital living made use of surveys wherein the sample was randomly selected. In the survey two sets of questionnaires were used. A household questionnaire was completed by the head of household and individual questionnaires were completed by all individuals older than the age of 1. After completing some of the quantitative survey fieldwork, a selection of households were approached for qualitative study. These studies include structured and unstructured interviews, photo records and prompt-based discussions, and repeat visits.  The research on internet use and sociability in China made use of surveys. Two data sets are used in that study.  Both surveys asked the same questions, they are separately analyzed to account for differences in interview modes and social contexts.   Results of the studies The main result of the study on Digital living focused on the idea that very few of the changes in time spent on primary and secondary activities can be significantly associated with gaining or losing Internet access at home. The results of the study showed that retirement from a job that involved computer or Internet access at the place of work can trigger home computer ownership and subsequently access to the Internet. The study suggests that changes to an individual’s access to the Internet in his or her home are having very little immediate and significant impact on the time one spends on other activities. The study suggests that social changes may also trigger changes in access to and usage of applications and services delivered via the Internet.  The study on internet use and sociability in China found out that age did not appear to be a useful predictor of household socializing time .The study found out that education seems to be a useful predictor of households socializing only in the mainland Chinese sample. Both the mainland Chinese and Hong Kong samples displayed a different pattern in Internet use from that of their U.S. counterparts. Of the different demographic characteristics examined, age stood out to be the strongest predictor of socialization with friends in both mainland China and Hong Kong. Some differences emerged in terms of the relationship between the four other demographic variables and socialization with friends. Education, family income and marital status were not found to be correlated with socializing with friends in either mainland China or Hong Kong samples. The study suggested that Internet usage was found to be unrelated to socializing with friends.   Part 2 Utility of the research questions Before analyzing data researchers must be clear about the question they are trying to answer. This will dictate the broad type of analysis they choose. Once researchers have decided that they need to use a bivariate technique, they will then need to choose between ranges of such techniques. In practice researchers develop and refine their research questions in the process of analysis so they move between univariate, bivariate and multivariate techniques. There are a variety of types of research questions varying from descriptive to more complex explanatory problems. Often these different types of research questions can represent different stages within the one study. Initially researchers might be interested simply in describing a phenomenon, but then the why questions about causes develops. As researchers proceed they might focus on one particular cause and then start asking more complex questions about that particular factor (De Vaus1996). The task of clarifying research questions is a process rather than a once-and-for-all task which is completed at the beginning of a study. The process of focusing a research question requires knowledge of the field, an understanding of previous research, an awareness of research gaps and knowledge of how other research in the area has been conducted (De Vaus1996). The research questions in the first and second study were carefully embedded in the whole study.  The research questions for both studies gave clearer direction for the researchers on the focus of the study and the main targets for data gathering and data analysis.  The research questions for both studies focused on pointing out the goal of the research method used.   Methodological limitations and issues Over the past decades methods for the analysis of visual materials, performance approaches, and an understanding of methods as poetics or interventionary narrative have all become important. Students of anthropology, cultural studies and sociology have grappled with ways of thinking about and describing decentred subjectivities and the geographical complexities that arise when intimacy no longer necessarily implies proximity. There is also a developing sense that global flows are uncertain, unpredictable indeed chaotic in the mathematical sense (Law 2004). Research in education and the social sciences has changed dramatically over the past few decades. With few exceptions, the typical research training in universities focused on statistics, measurement, and experimental methods, with little or no attention to other approaches to research.  Research methods and theory are often taught separately and portrayed as being different kinds of ideas (DeMarrais & Lapan 2004). Theory is taught as attempts to understand the world that have a history and thus are tentative, historically specific, and ultimately subject to the results of continued research. Research methods are often characterized as the arbiters of theory. As such researchers and students are often left with the understanding that methods are different from theory (DeMarrais & Lapan 2004).    When research is taught as a series of techniques, students learn that there are right and wrong ways to do whatever methodology being taught. The implicit and often explicit lesson is that research methods are not like ideas. As arbiters of theory, methods have a higher status than theory and have explicit rules that separate good from bad ways to know (DeMarrais & Lapan 2004). Research methods are imminently accessible. These methods do not differ qualitatively from people’s everyday practices of observing events and making sense of them (Schwab 1999).Research methods have two advantages for obtaining knowledge, and that these are only advantages when research is appropriately conducted and reported. First, research methods properly conducted address questions systematically. Researchers carefully collect scores from cases using measures that are suitable for the question asked. Analysis of these scores is thoughtfully performed, and results obtained are carefully interpreted; probable limitations are acknowledged. Second, research properly performed is a public process. The methods employed are reported along with the results and interpretations. This second characteristic is desirable so that others may evaluate research results and, if desired, repeat the research under similar or different conditions. Research methods, as well as results, are made available by researchers so that others may critically evaluate the research. This second characteristic of research is important for research reports (Schwab 1999).   The methodologies for both studies covered only a small part of the sample. This does not help in gathering the thoughts of the general public and it focused on the smaller aspects of a population.  The methodological limitations did not affect the results of the studies and it did not change the results of the studies but it opened up newer needs to study a bigger population with a similar topic.   How could the limitations be resolved? The limitations could be resolved through widening the scope of topic and choosing a larger population. By doing this a more general consensus would be gathered and more ideas can be gathered.   Conclusion  For the research on Digital living the main research question focuses on knowing the changing patterns of social innovation of the internet. For the research on Internet Use and sociability in China the research question focuses on how Internet users deal with their online and offline worlds. The research on Digital living made use of a combination of qualitative and quantitative methodologies while the research on Internet use and sociability in China made use of solely quantitative methodologies. The main result of the study on Digital living focused on the idea that very few of the changes in time spent on primary and secondary activities can be significantly associated with gaining or losing Internet access at home. The study on internet use and sociability in China found out that age did not appear to be a useful predictor of household socializing time. The study suggested that Internet usage was found to be unrelated to socializing with friends. The research questions in the first and second study were carefully embedded in the whole study.  The research questions for both studies gave clearer direction for the researchers on the focus of the study and the main targets for data gathering and data analysis.  The research questions for both studies focused on pointing out the goal of the research method used.   References Anderson, G 1998, Fundamentals of educational research, Falmer, London.   Anderson, B & Tracey, K 2001, ‘Digital living the impact (or otherwise) of the internet on everyday life’, American Behavioral Scientist, vol.45, no.2, pp. 456-475.   Bryman, A 1995, Research methods and organization studies, Routledge, London.   Bryman, A 1992, Quantity and Quality in social research, Routledge, London.   DeMarrais, K & Lapan, SD (eds.) 2004, Foundations for research: Methods of inquiry in education and the social sciences, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Mahwah, NJ.   De Vaus, D 1996, Surveys in social research, UCL Press, London.   Kelly, AE & Lesh, RA (eds.) 2000, Handbook of research design in mathematics and science education, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Mahwah, NJ.   Law, J 2004, After method: Mess in social science research, Routledge, New York.   Lee, BK & Zhu, JJ 2002, ‘Internet use and sociability in Mainland China’, IT & Society, vol. 1, no.1, pp.219-237.   Potter, WJ 1996, An analysis of thinking and research about Qualitative methods, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Mahwah, NJ.   Schwab, DP 1999, Research methods for organizational studies, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Mahwah, NJ.   Credit:ivythesis.typepad.com

Critical review of methodological approaches

Introduction There are two methodological approaches in social research namely quantitative and qualitative approach. Quantitative resea...