Research Topics: Schools

How Cyber Culture Changed our Schools

1. Introduction             The fast-paced and dynamic changes that happen in the society nowadays have led to the increase in the development and improvement of the different aspects, including technology, communication, economics, and education. In particular, the development in technology and communication has paved way to the improvement of education, which has become one of the relevant issues that is being addressed in academic and educational institutions. The use of technology and communication has extend not only to the business and marketing sector, but also to the education sector, which creates a technology-based culture and new attitudes on those who apply it. In addition, such application in the education sector has led to the ubiquity of Internet cafés in recent years, such that it provides access to information, basic access to health and other services, and provides cheap and efficient way of communicating, considering the limited purchasing power and poor infrastructure. However, the high Internet access rate in the United States today does not take place in Internet cafés alone, but its increase is also attributed to the Internet access at home and at school. Wells and Lewis reported for the National Center for Education Statistics that in the Fall of 2005, nearly 100% of public schools in the United States had access to the Internet, compared with 35% of Internet access in 1994. In simple terms, more students are having access to the Internet, creating more users, and contributing to the already growing cyber society and the development of a cyber culture.             The use of the Internet helps create a cyber society, which develops a cyber culture on those who use it more often, and has become important in addressing the use of the Internet in the improvement of education. Thus, cyber culture creates a new attitude on students because they adopt what they have learned in the Internet to their actual interaction with their fellow students and teachers. With this statement in mind, the main goal of this research study is to identify how cyber culture changes the school community in the United States, which plays an important role in the development of education.             This thesis will be divided into five chapters in order to provide clarity and coherence on the discussion of the topic. The first part of the thesis will be discussing the problem uncovered by the researcher and provide ample background to the topic. The second chapter will be discussing the relevance of the study in the existing literature, which will provide studies on different means of education, including ICT education, the different uses, the advantages and disadvantages of the Internet, the development of Internet cafés, and the effect of the use of the Internet to the students, teachers and parents. The third part of the thesis will discuss the methods and procedures used in the study, and comprise the presentation of the utilized techniques for data collection and research methodology. The fourth chapter will be an analysis on the tabulated data, which will include the use of computations, graphs, charts and tables, in order to uncover the relationship of the variables involved in the study. With the said data, the chapter seeks to address the statement of the problem noted in the first chapter. The last chapter will be comprised of three sections, which include the discussion of the findings and results, the conclusions of the thesis, and the recommendations for the study. With these three portions, the chapter will be able to highlight the implication of the findings in relation to the data obtained in the thesis.   1.1Background of the Study             Culture can be defined as the ways of acting, thinking and feeling, which are transmitted from generation to generation, and across societies through learning, not through inheritance (Albrow). Culture includes language and technology, both of which involve the communication of ideas and the possibility of sophisticated coordination of action. Culture vastly enhances adaptability (Albrow), thus, allow individuals to cope with the changes that happen in the society. A specific culture is being developed and learned in a specific society. A society is basically the overall relationship among humans and the things that surround us (Albrow). Human society in general, extends to all human beings, with which refers to the total number of members of the animal species (Albrow). In relation to this is the fact that the development of a specific culture depends on the influence of a community, particularly, an educational community. Ellen Hall and Richard Handley report that an educational community can provide support for its members to succeed, given that it is small and intimate enough for every member to know each other’s needs (141-142). With this importance, it can be understood that a community must be small and intimate for a particular culture to be inculcated in the practices of members. This aspect can be observed in understanding the concept of cyber culture.   The importance of the concept of cyber culture would be appreciated more effectively with knowing the idea of a cyber society. In relation to the general definition of a society, cyber society, thus, can be defined as the overall relationship among humans, software, programs and others through the use of the Internet. Similar to an actual society, the cyber society also has norms and cultures that members ritually or habitually conform to. The norms and culture specified here in particular is cyber culture. This is basically the culture present in online societies or communities. Communities include online forums, chats and other specialized websites that discusses a particular topic. Nevertheless, the development of such online communities transcends even the educational sector, such that nowadays, schools distribute reading materials online, with instructions being delivered to students and to teachers through emails (Wells and Lewis). With this, the importance of the use of the Internet becomes inevitable, as many individuals, especially students become highly dependent on it. The World Wide Web, now, becomes crucial to the improvement and development of education in the United States. However, the use and importance of the Internet in obtaining education is perceived to present both advantages and disadvantages, thus, is not completely regarded as beneficial to students. The close contact between cyber culture, the Internet, and school communities develops a new culture and new attitudes in relation to obtaining education in the United States, which affects the practices, values and attitudes of American students. With this, this research paper or thesis presents views of students, teachers and parents in relation to the use of the Internet as a means of obtaining education in the United States.        1.2 Objectives of the Study             The main aim of the study is to be able to identify the effects of cyber culture to the school community or to its culture. It aims to determine if such connection or interaction has any positive or negative impacts to the latter. Through this study, the following objectives will be completed: Ø      To conduct a survey on several students who are active of a particular cyber society, within a specific school; Ø      To conduct a survey on teachers who are teaching in a school where students have 100% access to the Internet; and Ø      To be able to assess and analyze the impact of Internet access and cyber culture among students on the progress of learning and the environment of the school   1.3 Statement of the Problem          The main question or problem that the study will try to answer is how cyber culture changes the school community in the United States. Additionally, the following research questions will also be explored in the study: Ø      What are the positive and negative effects of Internet access to schools in the United States? Ø      Does cyber culture affect the learning progress of students within these schools? Ø      How do the teachers view cyber culture? Do they think it can help in the creation of a better learning environment? Ø      How do the students view cyber culture? Are they fond of cyber culture or do they think it is just a waste of time? Ø      What are the advantages and disadvantages of cyber culture within the school community?   2. Review of Related Literature             It has already been mentioned that specific cultures are being developed in specific communities and societies, including the educational community, such as schools, universities and academic institutions. The culture being developed in academic institutions depends on the method or form of educational methods being implored. There are two known methods or forms of education, namely the conventional method and the ICT education. The conventional methods of education refer the traditional strategies or ways of obtaining education, which include classroom discussions, the use of chalks and blackboards, school bells, the library, assignments, and detention. In addition, students and school staff wear khaki pants and shirts, the men and boys wear sporting ties, and when classes change, students line up single file in corridors, their three-ring binders bursting with papers, and walking in silence until a teacher greets them and invites them into their next class (Harrington-Leuker). However, with the development and improvement of technology and communication, the use of the Internet now becomes a good means of education for many. With this, the implementation of ICT education or educational technology plays an important role in academic institutions. Information and Communications Technology or ICT education uses the computer and the Internet in providing education, knowledge and learning to individuals, especially to students. It has been reported that over the past twenty years, the implementation of ICT education has been constantly updated through investing large sums of money in equipment, software and training, which need to be continuously upgraded or renewed (Aviram). With this, many billions of dollars and much energy, good will and time have been spent in introducing a number of generations of computer to academic institutions, in the aim to introduce ICT education, and these efforts are closely followed by the introduction of multimedia and the Internet (Aviram). Aside from the large costs associated with the equipments to be used is the expensive cost of the technology itself that is required in ICT education. This technology must afford significant educational advantage, and must be networked and portable (Wiske). Along with these is the adjustment of teachers to accommodate the use of such technology, which entails a good deal of time, effort and money for training. ICT education and the online program is undoubtedly the most serious challenge to conventional academia, which includes no dormitories, no fraternities, sororities or student organizations and publications, not even a library, and no traditional campus (Mccarthy). With this, it can be understood that the implementation of ICT education in academic institutions entails a lot of preparation, compared to the implementation of conventional methods of education.             However, the changes that happen in the society nowadays force many academic institutions to try revolutionary strategies or forms of education, which involves the use of the Internet. With this, the use of the Internet must be evaluated, in terms of its advantages and disadvantages. One of the advantages of using the Internet is being an effective and efficient means of communicating with individuals irregardless of distance, culture, and race. With the use of the Internet, more individuals are able to relate with each other, through chat rooms, emails and other interactive websites. In addition, the use of the Internet enables individuals to dissipate and receive relevant and useful information from other individuals on the other side of the planet, including gossips, news, and fashion. Some online companies also established themselves in terms of online auctions, such as eBay and Monster.com. The use of such websites enables consumers to obtain information on different products and services available. In relation to this use is the further improvement and development of the business and marketing sector, which is further enhanced with the use of technology. As such, the role of the Internet in communication is being emphasized through this. The second advantage of using the Internet is related to entertainment. The development of the World Wide Web led many online companies to generate online games and other websites that provide entertainment to Internet users. This form of advantage enables many users to maximize the use of the Internet because it serves a good means of relaxation for them, such that the Internet has a variety of websites that offer online games, downloadable games, interactive and role-playing games, and many others. In addition, as a source of entertainment, Internet users can also websites that offer horoscopes, the latest news from their favorite stars, online dating and making friends, and many others. The Internet also provides users with collectible items, such as wallpapers, screen savers, music, and videos, which set the latest trend and fashion among the younger generation. The third and last use of the Internet is as an effective means of education. With the use of the Internet, users can access vast collections of academic and professional books, journals, magazines and newspapers, which are credible and relevant materials in obtaining education. In addition, the Internet also provides online research websites that provide the same volume of useful information and knowledge. With this, students and anyone who yearns and thirsts for knowledge would have the opportunity to access and obtain information with the click of their mouse. Thus, its use is most functional and beneficial in obtaining relevant information regarding different subject matters and topics.             However, despite the advantages of using the Internet is the presence of disadvantages. One of them is the fact that the use of the Internet may lead to committing crimes. Crimes can also be committed using the Internet, and this includes computer hacking. It has been reported 26% of cyber crime start in the United States, and followed by China with 24% (Ranofsky). Many cyber crimes are committed by students to prove that they can do it, while many do the same criminal acts for the millions of dollars they can generate through extortion. The common forms of computer and Internet hacking is through a virus, and through spying incidents (Radnofsky). With these, it can be understood that the confidential information being kept by companies can be accessed by unauthorized individuals. These cyber crimes must therefore be prevented to uphold the essence of secrecy and rightful protection deserved by individuals and companies. Another disadvantage of using the Internet is through pornography. Children and adults alike can easily access pornographic sites, which could help pollute their minds, and become the sources of crimes in the society, such as rape, murder, sexual harassment and many others. The free access to these websites influences many individuals to commit crimes in the society, thus, contribute to the chaos, discord, and disorder in the community. The third and last disadvantage of using the Internet is through cyber bullying. Cyber bullying involves the use of information and communication technologies such as emails, mobile phones, pager text messages, instant messaging, defamatory personal websites, and defamatory online personal polling websites to support deliberate, repeated, and hostile behavior by an individual or group of individuals that is intended to harm others (qtd. in Keith and Martin). This becomes one of the crises of students, parents and teachers, for many individuals use the Internet and other forms of technologies to hurt others through power and control. It has been reported that of 91% of kids with the age range of 12 to 15 years old and 16 to 18 years olds who use the Internet, 1,566 students from grades four to eight have been found to experience bullying online (qtd. in Keith and Martin). From this, it can be understood that the use of the Internet does not only present positive effects, but negative effects as well. With this information at hand, the effects of cyber culture in relation to education in the United States must be evaluated.   3. Research Methodology             3.1 Research Design and Data Collection Method             The research paper uses a descriptive research method, for this method is cheap and quick. It uses observations and surveys, and with the use of this method, it is possible that the study would obtain the needed sources and data. Nonetheless, this method is very hard to rule out alternative explanations and especially infer causations. This descriptive type of research utilizes observations in the study. The purpose of employing this method is to describe the nature of a situation, as it exists at the time of the study and to explore the causes of particular phenomena. The researcher opts to use this kind of research considering the desire of the researcher to obtain first hand data from the respondents to formulate rational and sound conclusions and recommendations for the study.             To come up with pertinent findings and to provide credible recommendations, this study utilizes two sources of research, namely, primary and secondary. Primary research data was obtained through a survey-questionnaire. The survey-questionnaire was distributed to teachers and students who have complete access to the Internet. The researcher has designed a questionnaire for the purpose of examining the views of teachers and students on cyber culture and its advantages and disadvantages to the learning process. The survey-questionnaire used a mixture of closed and open-ended questions. A closed question is one that has pre-coded answers, which is the simplest way in order to obtain objective answers from respondents. In addition, they will be used in the survey because the answers are easy to analyze and are straightforward as target respondents may not have ample time and attention in answering surveys. However, open-ended questions were also used to provide respondents subjective answers and in expressing their views regarding the topic.             The questionnaire consisted of mainly three parts. The first part has categorical questions to obtain the personal information of the respondents. The second part has questions pertaining to their views and opinions on cyber culture and the use of the Internet as an effective means of education, and the last part would include a number of open-ended questions for the purpose of a short interview. A 5-point Likert Scale was used in the second part of the questionnaire for the ease of answering. In support of such data gathered, the research has used secondary data from printed sources, such as academic and professional journal articles, books and magazines, to have a strong foundation of the whole study.               3.2 Sampling Methods             A simple random sampling was used for this study, which would give all respondents in the population an equal chance of being included in the study, on the consideration and knowledge that all respondents in the population have complete access to the Internet. The sample was randomly selected and a survey-questionnaire was used to measure the theoretical constructs in relation to the effects of the Internet as a means of education in the United States. A 5-poing scale with end points like “strongly agree”, “strongly disagree”, “agree”, “disagree”, and “uncertain” was used to measure the items. On the scale, number 1 indicates the strongly positive response and number 5 indicates the opposite extreme.             The equivalent weights for the answers will be: Range                                    Interpretation             5                                  Strongly Disagree             4                                  Disagree             3                                  Uncertain             2                                  Agree             1                                  Strongly Agree             The research study considered teachers and students from a K-6th school. The students are active members of a particular cyber society, and have complete access to the Internet. On the other hand, the teachers also have 100% access to the Internet. The proposed sampling frame for the study includes 30 teachers and 50 students. However, due to unavoidable and uncontrollable circumstances, only 20 teachers and 30 students were able to participate in the research study. The total sampling size was then used to represent the whole population.   4. Findings and Results of the Research Study    5. Discussion, Conclusions, and Recommendations   Credit:ivythesis.typepad.com

How Cyber Culture Changed our Schools

1. Introduction The fast-paced and dynamic changes that happen in the society nowadays have led to the increase in the deve...

Peterborough Regional College

Managing activities (unit 15)   HNC Coursework assignment 1:   Compare and contrast the Operations Management problems of The Glastonbury Festival (case 3 in Cases in Operational Management) with that of your own Organisation.   Required:-   A brief description of the operational environments and organisational culture of both entities defining their Mission and primary aims and objectives      10% of marks   Analysis and comparison of Product/service design features and how that supports organisational objectivses. 10% of marks   Analysis and comparison of process design and the implications of process layout and the considerations to health and safety. 15% of marks   Examination of delivery management, in terms of capacity, planning schedules and inventories. 15% of marks   Describe and compare the Quality the Systems in place and their contribution to organisational strategy, objectives and culture                                              15% of marks   Recommend steps that should be taken to improve both quality and value. 15% of marks   Make clear links with academic theory throughout with appropriate references. 10% of marks   Assignments should be well structured and presented in word processed or type written form. 10% of marks   Notes:-   As a guide it is likely that the assignment will contain around 1500 to 2000  words not including references or appendices.   This assignment represents 55% of the overall mark for this unit     Deadline for hand in week ending Friday ……………………………   Marked work will be returned ………………………………….. Expected outcomes of this assignment   Students will be able to:-   1.      Evaluate the importance of business processes in delivering outcomes based upon business goals and objectives.   2.Develop plans for their areas of responsibility and implement operational plans.   3.Design and monitor appropriate systems to ensure quality of product and services.   4.Manage health and safety in the workplace.   5.Improve organisational performance.   Outcomes 2 and 4 are further developed in assignment 2   Marking criteria To gain a distinction candidates will identify most relevant features appropriate to analysis of the scenario. Make full and appropriate use of own personal experience. Evidence of the extensive use of relevant literature and techniques beyond that of lecture input provided is apparent, thus demonstrating knowledge, understanding and analytical skills beyond the scope of the assignment scenario. Presentation and layout will be highly structured and to a very high standard.   To gain a merit candidates will identify a good spread of relevant features appropriate to analysis of the scenario. Make considerable and appropriate use of own personal experience. Analysis will be robust, structured and detailed. Evidence of further reading will be apparent. Presentation of the assignment should be clear, concise, well structured and to a generally high standard   To gain a pass candidates will identify relevant features appropriate to analysis of the scenario. Make use of own personal experience., appropriate to analysis of the scenario. Analysis will be adequate with a reasonable level of structure and detail. Evidence of little or no further reading is apparent. Presentation of the assignment should be clear and reasonably structured. Credit:ivythesis.typepad.com

Peterborough Regional College

Managing activities (unit 15) HNC Coursework assignment 1: Compare and contrast the Operations Management problems of The ...

FRATERNITIES AND SORORITIES AS PERCEIVED BY THE HIGH SCHOOL STUDENTS SY 2008-2009

FRATERNITIES AND SORORITIES AS PERCEIVED BY THE HIGH SCHOOL STUDENTS SY 2008-2009

nothing i just don’t know how to write my background of the study. i don’t know where to start. Credit:ivythesis.typepad.com

DISCUSS THE EFFECTIVENESS OF SCHOOL COUNCILS IN THE UNITED KINGDOM

Effectiveness of Britain’s School Councils Introduction             School Councils are about involving young people in the life of their school.  Traditionally pupils were viewed as passive learners, with their sole purpose being to get their qualifications and move on.  In recent years, this role has been changing as society begins to recognize the rights of young people.  Schools are beginning to listen to the views of pupils, and this has been seen to have a number of benefits to both staff and pupils.              In schools of several hundred pupils, ‘listening to their views’ is easier said that done.  School Councils are the term given to structures which facilitate this communication, and enable young people to take responsibility for aspects of school life previously considered ‘out of bounds’.  Due to the fact that every school is different, the definition of school council, too, is different.  Therefore, school council can be generally described as “an elected body of pupils whose purpose is to represent their classes and to be a forum for active and constructive pupil input into the daily life of the school community.” How School Councils work?             School councils can offer the school many benefits that would include (1) developing life skills, improving behavior and attainment, reducing exclusions, stress and vulnerability.  Additionally, these school councils make a positive contribution to every aspect of the school community.  They help improve academic performance, reduce bullying and vandalism, reduce school exclusions, and improve teacher-pupil relations.  British School Councils             School Councils in the UK has been helping schools develop into caring communities, working with teachers and pupils in infant, primary, secondary and special schools for more than ten years.  British School Councils also works in partnership with local Education Authorities, providing guidance, support and training.              School Councils UK is an independent charity which promotes and facilitates effective structures for pupil participation in every school.  Their vision is centered on young people as decision-makers, stakeholders and partners in their schools and communities.  Additionally, it produces popular resources to support schools with student voice and school council development.  The school council toolkits and the secondary school councilor handbook are widely referenced resources.  These resources are currently used in half of UK schools.  Effectiveness of School Councils <li class="MsoNormal" style="color: black; text-align: justify; line-height: 200%"> Student Development</li> Pupil Councils provide a basis for active learning of important life skills such as speaking and listening skills, teamwork, emotional literacy, problem-solving, moral reasoning skills, self-esteem and self confidence.  These developments would allow young people and children acquire skills which help them to become resilient to negative experiences.  Moreover, pupil council experiences provide a dynamic foundation for learning about citizenship.  More importantly, school and class councils enable pupils to have a voice and to understand that their opinions count.  According to       , “school councils can be a most excellent training ground in responsibility for future citizens.  School councils develops positive peer leadership and the responsibility for maintaining good behavior is shifted away from teachers and towards members of the classroom and school community.  Pupils become able to resolve conflicts amongst their peers.  Additionally, according to  (2003), school councils play an important role in fostering the personal and social development of pupils especially in the contribution to citizenship education.  <li class="MsoNormal" style="color: black; text-align: justify; line-height: 200%"> School Development</li> There is an apparent improvement in the school as there is also an improved communication between pupils and teachers, senior management and governors.  The school develops into a community where pupils and teachers work in partnership towards shared goals.  Taken from the statement of a teacher in      , “the result of school councils has been phenomenal that a limited input of time has had such a big effect.  Accounting to the students’ improvements in their behavior is the positive impact on teachers’ stress levels, teacher-pupil relationships and the learning environment.  The best way to return to local control in education is to eliminate central school boards, downsize central district offices by making them arms of the state, and replace districtwide boards with local school districts which allow for and encourage broader participation and ownership of schools (, 2003).    Conclusion             School councils play a big role in the United Kingdom’s educational advancement.  For the fact that such system has yet been found to have setbacks, it should be a model for other countries to replicate.  There has been no doubt as to why and how Britain’s educational system soars.  With all its benefits, school councils take a huge step forward in the development of both the students, the schools, and as well as the community.    REFERENCES       Credit:ivythesis.typepad.com

DISCUSS THE EFFECTIVENESS OF SCHOOL COUNCILS IN THE UNITED KINGDOM

Effectiveness of Britain’s School Councils Introduction School Councils are about involving young people in the life of th...

WHY YOU SHOULD BE ADMITTED INTO THE SCHOOL OF JOURNALISM AND MASS COMMUNICATION

Being so much interested on how films and television productions are made, I aspire to be a film director for television. To be a good film director someday, I want to enroll in a School of Journalism and Mass Communication because such school will help enhance my skills and broaden my knowledge in TV directing. In schools like this, I believed that they exposed students to real-life situations and intensive training aside from the rigorous studying of mass media. Having been enrolled in School of Journalism and Mass Communication will prepare me in pursuing a career in film and TV directing and will help me make high-quality video product in the future.             Through my research in search for a better school to enroll with, I have learned that SJMC help students enhance their ability on being where the news is happening, and to improve the ability and knowledge on delivering news and reality shows thus I want to enroll for a Bachelor of Science in Communication in the Department of Journalism and Broadcasting.  I believe that at SJMC, students are taught on proper handling of current events, the proper ways of capturing important details of events and delivering it to the TV audiences. To do that, I want to learn on how news and current events are shot, the equipments that are used and how to edit video shots to present only the relevant information. I believe that such inclusions in the curriculum are a better way of preparing student in making quality films, allowing them to know the structure and organization of a good film.             During my high school years, we were taught on how to write articles and news. I have learned that journalism is a technical discipline, no flowery words allowed, only facts that are witnessed personally by the journalist. A journalist must not write and article which he can not support with details. Academically, I earned good grades and was active in extracurricular activities like in newspaper and article writing. I think it will be more interesting if these events are no only written but also captured where details can be seen. Back in high school, were also taught on how to take pictures of events in which the picture alone conveyed the real happenings. I have also joined organizations in our school such as the drama guild which creates theatrical production but I realized that am more interested in making documentary films that are happening in real life than fictions.             I love watching documentary films such as the National Geography and those that are about people and real events. I am interested not only with the story but more on how the story took place. I am interested in doing TV documentary films on well-known events such as the 9/11 tragedy, the World War II, and the real scenes and happenings in the lives of terrorists such as Bin Laden as well as sports documentary. I think being a film director is a challenging profession, accompanied by media-related problems. But I believe that after I have seen the video of a film which I will be directing myself in the future, it will be a great feeling.             I believe that I have the skills and knowledge needed to be enhanced and be developed so I want to be admitted in SJMC to be able to prepare my career as a film director; a good school will let me experience the environment in making films and prepare me in dealing with people that I will be dealing with when I am already practicing my profession. Professors from such schools have enough knowledge and experiences to impart on me, for me to become a good film director. Credit:ivythesis.typepad.com

WHY YOU SHOULD BE ADMITTED INTO THE SCHOOL OF JOURNALISM AND MASS COMMUNICATION

Being so much interested on how films and television productions are made, I aspire to be a film director for television. To b...

HISTORY OF THE DESEGREGATION OF AMERICAN SCHOOLS

History of the Desegregation of American Schools   Social inequality and racial collectivism in America did not only misplace and isolated the black community geographically but also crippled them in different aspects of their society.  Such aspects are: economy, politics and culture. The geographic isolation of blacks undermines the power of pluralist politics and means that whites have less to gain when public funds and resources are channeled to all black areas and away from multiethnic communities. The isolation contributes to the disinvestment and decline in many urban black areas by making them vulnerable to cutbacks in public funds and services. White politicians are more apt to target black neighborhoods for spending cuts because of the minimal political fallout.   According to  (1996), the story of international action against racial discrimination as of international action against many other evils, is that of the great effort to extend the rule of law. It is a highly political struggle, because it is about cajoling states to give up a little of their sovereignty. They are uncertain to do this unless they can get something in exchange. By complying with a convention they may be able to contribute to a cause they think important, to improve their image in the diplomatic world, or to put pressure on some other state of whose policies they disapprove.   The African American culture has been of great interest to a large number of studies. This is due to the unique and fascinating character and personality of its people. African Americans have a history and life experience that they alone fully understand. The civilization they experienced and the current social and economic pressures they endure are largely different from the more popular and highly researched lives of the Caucasians and Asians. As a race, these people have suffered greatly in the long story of their existence, and until these days, it is still evident in the low treatment of the racist and narrow-minded groups of people that, for some people, is inevitable in the global community that is now shared all over the world. This is evident in the calls that concerned individuals and private institutions, foundations and sectors that address anti-racism and anti-discrimination in the national and international setting. Such social stigma related to skin color is doubled by the discrimination felt by the African American gays and lesbians in their community and in the workplace. In effect, it is highly relevant that the roots of the nature of gender orientation be given light to others to fully understand and empathize with African American homosexuals.   The segregation and discrimination of the black urban community is the result of politics and economy in the mainstream history of the United States. It is also a given fact that the black community is in the side stream of America’s history. From 1450 -1750, the North American continent experienced enormous changes. The European explorers ventured to what they called then as the “New World” in search of vast amounts of natural wealth.  Corollary to these exploratory activities, these European explorers also traveled to Africa and began a trans-Atlantic slave trade.  Millions of Africans were brought to the Americas and traded there as slaves. This mass movement of people led to a new social and economic system; with the color of the skin as a determining factor whether one would live as a slave or as a free citizen. By 1750, both the free and enslaved black people showed an intense attachment to America. After 1750, many African-Americans already found their freedom. In 1830, Philadelphia held the first meeting of the American Society of Free Persons of Color (later became the National Negro Convention). This organization for the black people was created to establish a black community and seek true freedom ( 1998).            America is a country that places great values to education as an important characteristic in sustaining the democracy maintained and uphold by the Constitution.  The significance of education has long been hailed through the innovations in science and technology pioneered in the United States in the goal to provide the best kind of learning experience to the young members of the population. The support of the government and private sectors and organizations in promoting and upholding the right to education of every student has long been the driving and mechanical force in putting children in schools for them to avail the needs to be educated.  The United States in particular has been known to uphold freedom and equality in experiencing the good life.  The individualist cultural orientation of the country made the people of America to place importance in the concept of independence in the effort and time dedicated in advocating the relevance of individual choice and freedom.   And the application of such concepts in the everyday life importantly covers the aspect of education. The problem it seems, with the educational system is that it has been too complacent or too comfortable to address the issues of institutionalized racism. The academe has taken refuge in its insistence that racism could not exist in an academic institute because of the ideals that the institute claim to uphold. In the University, no student or employee shall, on the basis of their race, color, or national origin be disqualified or excluded from participation in, be denied or deprived of the benefits of, or be subjected to discrimination under any University program or activity. University programs and activities include, but are not limited to, admissions, recruitment, financial aid, academic programs, student treatment and services, counseling and guidance, discipline, classroom assignment, grading, recreation, physical education, athletics and employment (Campus Conduct). Most of the time, discrimination is associated with the act of making a disparity, as in favor of or against a person or thing. It is a form of behavior that shows prejudice, but not only the form. It is the failure to treat people in the same way. In most cases, discrimination exists because there is no acceptance and respect. It has also been influenced by traditions and cultures.   The rise of civil rights movement in America since 1940 brings a significant change in the life of the African-American people. Two of the primary goals of the modern civil rights movement are to push for educational change and to improve the educational situation of African-Americans. However, the reforms demanded by the movement were not well received by the majority of school personnel and researchers ( 1991). Many years of bloody revolutions and social uprisings took place before American schools; lunch counters and worksites were desegregated. President John F. Kennedy issued an executive order in 1961 offering opportunities to the African-American community as compensation for years of discrimination. By the late 1960s, President Richard Nixon instructed companies working on federal projects to attain minority-hiring objectives. On the other hand, President George Bush, taking side against the Michigan in the Supreme Court case, said that he strongly supported diversity of all kinds including racial diversity in higher education ( 2003).               In 1965, there were only few African-American students who chose to enroll at the previously all-white schools of Cave Street Elementary for grades one to six and Deshler High School for grades seven to twelve in Alabama. In Deshler, one’s race interfered with one’s right to have a decent education.  Maria, an African American student, recounted some incidents that demonstrated her perceptions of hostility about the educational atmosphere in Deshler ( 2000).  By the 1970s, African-Americans have shown intense interest in pursuing their educational goals. In 1992, 52 percent of them planned to proceed directly to a four-year course after high school graduation as compared to 32 percent in 1972.  Also, there was an increase on the percentage of African-Americans to enter academic programs at two-year colleges. During the 1980s and 1990s, the number of bachelor degrees given to African-Americans increased noticeably. In spite of these gains however, their number was still lesser compared to the number of white Americans and Asian-Americans who wanted to enroll in college after high school. The U.S. Census Bureau in 2000 revealed a lesser percentage of African-Americans who received bachelor’s degree in their 20s and 30s. This statistic is smaller than the percentage for all racial and ethnic groups in America, taken together. This discrepancy caught the attention of the political leaders in the United States that is why they wanted to increase the participation of African-Americans in higher education, as one of the country’s educational objectives (, 2002).               According to the report made by the National Assessment of Educational Progress last 2000, the standardized test scores of average African-American and Hispanic students are lower, as compared to the scores of white students at comparable grade levels. The U.S. Department of Education concluded after its examination on 27 school reform models, that most of the reform models failed to make significant improvements. In January 2002, President George W. Bush, signed the No Child Left behind Act into law. This new education reform bill was designed basically to close the achievement gap between white upper-and middle-class public school students and poor children and children of color ( 2003). According to , U.S. Secretary of Education, he optimistically said before the National Press Club that every day our service to our children becomes better and each day we come one step closer to the future of excellence and inclusion, discarding the deficiencies and rectifying longstanding problems (   2004).                (1996) authored a book that deals with racism in schools, its effects on the academic performance, interpersonal relationships as well as the general outlook on life of African American students as well as other students of ‘color’. He pointed out how most academic institutions, in their confidence that racism has no place in such an idealistic institution often forget that some of their actions and behavior actually have racist implications. Accordingly, racism shows itself repeatedly in classrooms owing to the ignorance of individual teachers as well as administrators through institutionalized racism. The article entitled “A Pernicious Silence: Confronting Race in the Elementary Classroom” by   talks about creating classroom communities which are supposed to be, constructive, developmentally appropriate communities of learning that are necessary for solid learning to happen. There is an emphasis on everyone’s need to feel comfortable in order to take risks, and learning that is built on risk-taking. The problem is that teachers may also unwittingly create communities of silence (, 2003).    The provision of appropriate educational needs for children with special disabilities has long been a common issue in education. Arguments and debates have been raised in line with the right policies on how to educate children with special educational needs (SEN). According to (1997), children with disabilities are traditionally educated in segregated classrooms, specifically designed to cater the students’ certain incapacities. Educators find this segregation system beneficial, as they are able to apply curriculum formulated specifically for special children. Likewise, children with disabilities benefit from this system not only because of the appropriate curriculum but the thought of attending classes with classmates of the same disabilities enhance their confidence or self-esteem as well. Furthermore, being segregated assures the security and sufficient support the special children needs. While social skill development may vary based from numerous results of previous studies, inclusion is capable of enhancing children’s academic achievement through speech and language programs, improved parent–teacher communication, greater use of group work, a student participation in class discussions, and increased community acceptance of people with disabilities. Furthermore, several educators have argued that exposing children into ordinary education settings will be the most effective means of equipping children into better self-supportive adults in the future.   There are concepts of schools as ideological state apparatuses, and of cultural capital, used to analyze curriculum knowledge that has been selected, and cultural behaviors privileged and rewarded through both the formal and the hidden curricula. There are also identified mixture of gains and losses created by the National Curriculum in terms of educational equality regarding ‘race’, gender, special needs, sexual diversity and social class. The general principle is that policies are being directed toward school populations which are differentially recognized for educational purposes and for whom higher levels and different modes of financing are required. A whole range of school populations, however they are delineated by country authorities, according to various social, cultural, linguistic, racial, ethnic, geographic, physical and mental characteristics, are the subjects of special educational attention. A new comparative study could usefully follow the precedent established in the present report to examine the general principles in this field in which policy is related to finance ( 1979).   For the positive aspects in integration, it is included that the additional resources should now be available for all students. Although the validity of normalization as a basis for integration was questioned from the start, the concept played a significant role on pressures towards integration, and continues to do so. Critics claimed that normalization did not recognize the fact that the society includes a wide range of individual differences. Moreover, it did not adequately recognize the diversity of educational, vocational and other opportunities that are available to people in the adult world. For the advocates of integration, however, the right to education meant the right of students with disabilities to receive an education mean. These are speech and language programs, improved parent–teacher communication, greater use of group work, a student participation in class discussions, and increased community acceptance of people with disabilities. Students at mainstream schools were more likely to have higher academic achievements than those at special schools, even when developmental level was similar. Against these benefits, inclusion also brought its share of challenges. Although the concept of inclusion may have its own set of drawbacks, such disadvantages can be resolved primarily through effective training of educators.   Human development is crucial. It was said that no country can secure sustainable economic growth or reduce poverty without healthy, well-nourished, and well-educated people. The love for learning is so great that it should be associated with a way of life. Education helps people to be more objective in their approach to life’s problems, more analytical in trying to understand them and more aware of the consequences that can arise when handling them. Education can help lead a fuller and richer life and to be more conscious of the economic and social environment.   Annotated Bibliography: (1996). However, in democratic countries people are accustomed to seeing their governments criticized daily in many of the morning newspapers, but when a foreign official criticizes the same government, reactions are different. People would ask whether conditions in the foreigner’s country are such that he or she is entitled to complain. Diplomats, in particular, are trained to defend their countries’ honor. They are always on the look-out for fear that the rules of international relations are applied unfairly to their countries’ disadvantage ( 1996).    Individuals are being treated unequally due to the influenced of some strong factors like religion, sex, national origin, sexual orientation, and even disability. Efforts towards establishing an earnest multicultural institute are being made however to address and handle this problem and it begins with initiating a self examination on one’s awareness in detecting racist forms of behaviors and attitudes. Common solutions propose to break the silence by gaining enough courage to talk it through with the kids in order to gain a better understanding of themselves as well as growing in a culturally diverse environment ().    (1979). A study of British Policy and the Political Impasse in India Through contacts with the parents much has been learned by the teachers about the children, which has, in many cases, enabled them to solve problems and unexplained difficulties which they had encountered. But a great deal remains to be done. The policy is to be implemented thoroughly and completely. There are crucial areas where policy has failed to effect change in the past and where it can succeed in the future, particularly in relation to equality. Policies legitimate certain concerns, provide resources to further them, and provide a basis for evaluation and refinement ( 1979).   (1997) These argument concerned academic achievement, the detrimental effects of labeling associated with placement outside the mainstream, the racial imbalance in special education, and recent advances in individually paced curricula which would make it possible to accommodate students with disabilities in the regular class. Most importantly, it was argued by educators that these centers are the best way of preparing students with disabilities for ultimate integration into the community as self-support adult (1997).   (1996) In both urban and suburban schools, students of color experience inequality by being given a smaller amount of instructional time biased texts and curricula, harsh sanctions (suspension and detention), lowered teacher expectations, and teacher/administrator and school denial of racist actions. White students who lack sufficient understanding of racism on the other hand often accuse the victims of using their ethnicity or race as a crutch in order to get special treatment due to their laziness to do things on their own initiative. As a result, some potentially brilliant student of color represses his skills and talent out of fear of being bullied and a resentment of not being taken seriously ( 1996).  (2000).   During that time, African-American students were treated unfairly and unjustly by some teachers and white students ( 2000).   (2003). Race matters: this year, the Supreme Court could dismantle affirmative action. Would it be ending an unfair practice or hurting the cause of racial equality?.   This affirmative action does not only help the minorities who have been subject for discrimination for so many years but also improved the educational experience of everyone in the university. One student from a university in Michigan said that she is proud for having friends who are black (, 2003).        (2003).   The article states that when teachers avoid the subject, and pretend that it doesn’t exist as an issue, or when the issue is treated lightly, they are sending a very strong message which may be unintentional but it produces stifling results. However, when teachers find ways to address the issues surrounding race in society it has been found that children feel liberated. They begin to be more open about their questions and there is more space for them to focus on all kinds of learning ( 2003).     Many societies were founded by the blacks. The black community in Philadelphia created schools for their children because they were denied access to public schools. However, the conflict between the blacks and the whites worsened which led to the Civil War in 1861. After four years, African Americans were promised of rights of citizenship and slavery was abolished (1998).   (2003). The law requires every classroom to have a highly competitive teacher likewise; the states are required to measure the students’ performance regularly. Recent reports show that the law is working well and the strategies are very effective ( 2003).    (2002). Aside from being a political and social issue, this issue is also economic. The economic success of young people also relies on their achievement of an academic degree ( 2002).  (2004).   There are various opportunities offered to African-American students. The African American Cultural Program (AACP) offers experiences beyond academic pursuits. It provides training in the areas of news casting, promotions and public affairs. The Central Black Student Union (CBSU) extends help in planning and sponsoring social, educational and cultural programs for students through early events like “Cotton Club” ( 2004).  (1991).   One important milestone in the African-American education was the landmark case of Brown versus the Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas in 1954, in which the Supreme Court unanimously overruled the “separate but equal” doctrine of , holding for the first time that the de jure segregation in the public school clearly violated the principle of equal protection under the law guaranteed by the Fourteenth Amendment to the US Constitution. The decision was then applied to mainly southern school systems ( 1991)  Credit:ivythesis.typepad.com

HISTORY OF THE DESEGREGATION OF AMERICAN SCHOOLS

History of the Desegregation of American Schools Social inequality and racial collectivism in America did not only misplace and isolat...

METHODS TO BEST EVALUATE THE SITUATION OF STUDENTS BEHAVIORS

“Lee Part 3”             The main cause of the problem in Midland High School is the discrimination practices facilitated by the principal of Midland High School by not allowing the Franconi students to participate in extra-curricular activities that eventually pave way for the formation of ethnic gangs in school.             After considering the different strategies and methods to be used, I recommend the use of the two kinds of methods to best evaluate the situation of Midland High School. The use of qualitative or quantitative data determines the motivation behind the behaviors shown by the Cougars and the Pure Strains.   Thorough study is needed in order to come up with fair and just decisions.  Focus groups and in-depth interviews, as well as surveys are important tools to resolve the problem in Midland High School.  The use of two methods provides a more complete picture of the issue being addressed and the effectiveness of the program itself. By conducting surveys, giving out of questionnaires and the statistical methods used to test predetermined the hypothesis. The researcher is considered external to the actual research, and results are expected to be replicable no matter who conducts the research. Qualitative process evaluation methods can include periodic interviews or focus groups with target audience members to assess their progress toward behavior change. This combination of approaches is essential because of the wide range of information needed to build up effective communications.         Credit:ivythesis.typepad.com

METHODS TO BEST EVALUATE THE SITUATION OF STUDENTS BEHAVIORS

“Lee Part 3” The main cause of the problem in Midland High School is the discrimination practices facilitated by the principa...

The Point of View of De La Salle University Students

This study aimed to describe the phenomenology of text messaging.  Specifically, this study identified the advantages and disadvantages of text messaging from the point of view of De La Salle University students.  These advantages and disadvantages were further subdivided into three aspects: financial, psychosocial and academic.  This study also intended to gauge the extent of importance of text messages and in usage of such device for the said college students.  The researchers made use of the descriptive research study.  The interview method was used to gather information.  This was to give the respondents the chance to answer at their own pace.  It was through this method, that this study was able to gain wider range of information about text messaging. Basically, this study is descriptive in nature.    Subject Sampling             Respondents were chosen among students of De La Salle University.  Their ages ranged from seventeen (17) to twenty-one (21) years old.  From a university with a student population of above 15,000, the study yielded a total of twenty (20) interviewees.  The researchers decided to limit the interviewees to twenty to ensure quality interviews instead of having quantity without quality.  Each interviewee had to provide in-depth answers and elaborate on them.  Due to time constraints,   deadlines to meet and other academic requirements from other subjects, the researchers felt that twenty interviewees were enough to be able to give a general picture of the behavior they were researching on among the De La Salle University students.   Equal number of males and females were chosen.             For this study, purposive sampling was used.  The respondents have been owners of GSM cellular phones for more than one year. The one-year ownership criteria was set so that the respondents would have already adjusted well to the quirks of their cellular phones.  The researchers asked for the respondents’ consent prior to participating in the said interview.     Instruments  A thorough interview guide was used as the main instrument in gathering necessary information about the effects or life changes brought about by text messaging to the twenty (20) college students of De La Salle University (see Appendix A).  The questions in the interview were drawn from a standard guideline or protocol items designed to extract the advantages and disadvantages of text messaging.  The interview guideline was composed of questions for which participants were encouraged to give a free flow of thought and conversation, therefore providing the study with as much information as needed.  As it is, the interview utilized leading, open-ended, and direct questions.  For validation purposes, the researchers initially submitted an outline of the interview and after approval, gave a list of questions to be asked.  After the go-signal was given, the researchers proceeded to interview one male and one female respondent, both students of De La Salle University.  After the interviews, the researchers made the necessary corrections to ensure further improvement and validity of the instrument.  After examining the content of the interview, the researchers found their instrument, reliable.  The researchers excluded the irrelevant questions and changed words to simpler terms which they observed were causing the participants difficulty in understanding its meaning. Interviews were utilized because the researchers felt that it will give them a greater opportunity to gather more exhaustive information.  The use of open-ended questions have made it easier for the researchers to probe and let the participants further explain their answers.  The researchers’ probing skill then served as an essential factor in acquiring more accurate and detailed information.  The interview process was conducted in an informal manner.  This manner of interviewing has facilitated spontaneity and willingness for the participants in disclosing their answers and ideas to the questions. Procedure The first step taken by the researchers was to look for appropriate participants in De La Salle University who would fit the standard qualifications set by the researchers.  The qualification standards are the following: a participant must be a student of De La Salle University, aged between seventeen to twenty-one years old, and must be a GSM cellular phone user for more than a year.  The researchers, along with their friends, sought out respondents who fit the study’s criteria.  During the actual day of the interview, the researchers introduced themselves as well as the topic and objectives of the study.  To establish rapport and comfortability with the participants, the researchers engaged in friendly conversation mostly talking about current events.  As soon as the researchers felt that the participants were already relaxed with their presence, the researchers asked consent from the interviewee with regard to the use of a cassette-recording device for the entire duration of the actual interview session.  Upon their approval, the informal interview commenced.  During the interview, questions were asked point-by-point making certain that all preferred questions were answered thoroughly. The researchers probed almost every question to let the participants describe further their responses.  Ten to fifteen minutes was the average time spent for the interview.  In effect, the researchers’ probing skills and sense of courtesy, encouraged the participants to further describe in detail their answers, played a vital role.  In the end of the interview, the researchers were thankful for the participants’ willingness and ability to contribute to the study. As a sign of gratitude, the researchers gave out souvenirs of appreciation to the participants signaling the end of the interaction. The researchers categorized the answers given by each participant into clusters.  These were presented in both tabular and paragraph form.  Presenting them in tables made it to appear more organized and therefore helped the researchers identify the highlights of the results.  Thorough analyses based on the results were made.   Data Analysis             Data that were gathered by the researchers from the in-depth interview were analyzed qualitatively.  Answers of each participant to the questions were categorized according to their benefits, advantages, disadvantages, problems, and coping mechanisms experienced as the questions themselves were dynamically arranged to elicit such answers.  These, together with their corresponding frequencies were supplied in tabulated structure.  In determining the highest frequencies of the answers, descriptive statistics was applied.  Moreover, this gave a more organized presentation of data.  This also provided the means enabling the researchers to easily analyze the highlights of the results.  Findings of the study were then associated with related literature made in the beginning of the paper. Methodological Limitations             The participants in this study are twenty (20) male and female De La Salle University students who are currently users of GSM cell phones.  Therefore, the whole population of college students was not represented.  Other schools were not included since the study focused on De La Salle University students only.  In the course of the study, the researchers experienced difficulty in seeking participants who were willing to be part of the study.  Reasons for unwillingness ranged from shyness, lack of time, preoccupation with schoolwork, among many others.  In some of the interviews, there were subjects who gave short and vague answers.  In order to clarify their answers, continuous probing of the researchers was done.  In effect, there were instances when researchers appeared to be leading.  The outcome of each interview was generally substantial and informative, although there were instances when participants do not directly answer the questions.  This however was overcome by the researchers’ thorough repetition of the unanswered question.  There were unavoidable interruptions, which disrupted their trend of thought like, cellular phone calls and text messages, and some greetings from participants’ friends and acquaintances as the interview sessions were done inside the university’s premises.  As a result of the use of open-ended questions, there were no exact terms given by every participant to mean the same things, therefore making it hard for the researchers to think of a general term for all of the words used by the participants.             The main reason why this methodology was used was to elicit in-depth answers from the respondents instead of only checking the choices, which is a prevalent method in surveys.  Another reason was to encourage the participants to elaborate on the effects of text messaging on their lives, based on the three aspects being studied, namely, psychosocial, academic and financial.    Credit:ivythesis.typepad.com

The Point of View of De La Salle University Students

This study aimed to describe the phenomenology of text messaging. Specifically, this study identified the advantages and disa...

SCHOOL COUNCILS

Effectiveness of Britain’s School Councils Introduction             School Councils are about involving young people in the life of their school.  Traditionally pupils were viewed as passive learners, with their sole purpose being to get their qualifications and move on.  In recent years, this role has been changing as society begins to recognize the rights of young people.  Schools are beginning to listen to the views of pupils, and this has been seen to have a number of benefits to both staff and pupils.              In schools of several hundred pupils, ‘listening to their views’ is easier said that done.  School Councils are the term given to structures which facilitate this communication, and enable young people to take responsibility for aspects of school life previously considered ‘out of bounds’.  Due to the fact that every school is different, the definition of school council, too, is different.  Therefore, school council can be generally described as “an elected body of pupils whose purpose is to represent their classes and to be a forum for active and constructive pupil input into the daily life of the school community.” How School Councils work?             School councils can offer the school many benefits that would include (1) developing life skills, improving behavior and attainment, reducing exclusions, stress and vulnerability.  Additionally, these school councils make a positive contribution to every aspect of the school community.  They help improve academic performance, reduce bullying and vandalism, reduce school exclusions, and improve teacher-pupil relations.  British School Councils             School Councils in the UK has been helping schools develop into caring communities, working with teachers and pupils in infant, primary, secondary and special schools for more than ten years.  British School Councils also works in partnership with local Education Authorities, providing guidance, support and training.              School Councils UK is an independent charity which promotes and facilitates effective structures for pupil participation in every school.  Their vision is centered on young people as decision-makers, stakeholders and partners in their schools and communities.  Additionally, it produces popular resources to support schools with student voice and school council development.  The school council toolkits and the secondary school councilor handbook are widely referenced resources.  These resources are currently used in half of UK schools.  Effectiveness of School Councils <li class="MsoNormal" style="color: black; text-align: justify; line-height: 200%"> Student Development</li> Pupil Councils provide a basis for active learning of important life skills such as speaking and listening skills, teamwork, emotional literacy, problem-solving, moral reasoning skills, self-esteem and self confidence.  These developments would allow young people and children acquire skills which help them to become resilient to negative experiences.  Moreover, pupil council experiences provide a dynamic foundation for learning about citizenship.  More importantly, school and class councils enable pupils to have a voice and to understand that their opinions count.  According to , “school councils can be a most excellent training ground in responsibility for future citizens.  School councils develops positive peer leadership and the responsibility for maintaining good behavior is shifted away from teachers and towards members of the classroom and school community.  Pupils become able to resolve conflicts amongst their peers.  Additionally, according to  (2003), school councils play an important role in fostering the personal and social development of pupils especially in the contribution to citizenship education.  <li class="MsoNormal" style="color: black; text-align: justify; line-height: 200%"> School Development</li> There is an apparent improvement in the school as there is also an improved communication between pupils and teachers, senior management and governors.  The school develops into a community where pupils and teachers work in partnership towards shared goals.  Taken from the statement of a teacher in Lipson College, “the result of school councils has been phenomenal that a limited input of time has had such a big effect.  Accounting to the students’ improvements in their behavior is the positive impact on teachers’ stress levels, teacher-pupil relationships and the learning environment.  The best way to return to local control in education is to eliminate central school boards, downsize central district offices by making them arms of the state, and replace districtwide boards with local school districts which allow for and encourage broader participation and ownership of schools (, 2003).    Conclusion             School councils play a big role in the United Kingdom’s educational advancement.  For the fact that such system has yet been found to have setbacks, it should be a model for other countries to replicate.  There has been no doubt as to why and how Britain’s educational system soars.  With all its benefits, school councils take a huge step forward in the development of both the students, the schools, and as well as the community.    REFERENCES   Credit:ivythesis.typepad.com

SCHOOL COUNCILS

Effectiveness of Britain’s School Councils Introduction School Councils are about involving young people in the life of th...