Research Topics: Military

Transfer of the UK Commando Force

The armed forces and military of a country determine how powerful the nation is. The history of the world has told us that the nations that become superpowers in the world have a strong military. Napoleon Bonaparte was able to conquer the vast continent of Europe because of the strong military, a number of European countries were able to colonise many countries across the world due to a powerful military. Today, the United States of America is the only remaining superpower in the world and the nation exhibits a dynamic armed forces.             Prior to the United States of America, United Kingdom has the biggest and strongest military in the world. According to Herman (2004) the British Royal Navy is the long-standing armed services of the British Armed Forces and was the biggest and most important navy in the world during 18th to 20th century, the royal navy was one of the essential elements in setting-up the British Empire. [1]             Currently the British Royal Navy is the second largest navy in the world, next only to the United States. According to the Royal Navy (2006) it has sixteen nuclear powered submarines, a surface fleet that links three aircraft carriers and a squadron that can be able to operate in land and in water that was newly reinforced with a helicopter carrier. [2]             This main objective of this paper is to investigate how the components in the British Royal Navy have provided military capability at the operational level in order to understand how the components might be joint delivered in the future.                         The United Kingdom is one of the richest nations in the continent of Europe as well as in the whole world. According to Lazarowics (2003) the United Kingdom, particularly its capital London is one of the largest financial centres in the world with the biggest insurance markets such as the London Stock exchange and the London International Financial Futures and Options Exchange established in London.[3] United Kingdom is a rich country; therefore the primary interest of the nation is in its economics. However, after the London bombings in July 21, 2005 and the recent bomb scare in the London Heathrow airport the government have put emphasis in the national security and the fight against terrorism as one of its national interest. The relationship of the United Kingdom to the international community is also essential to the national interest of the country.             The primary role of the Royal Navy (RN) is to guard the special interests of the United Kingdom whether locally or internationally, the RN executes the defence policies of the British Monarchy and Government through the utilisation of the military and diplomatic activities in order to support the objectives of the government and the monarchy [4](Wikipedia, 2007). The national interests of the United Kingdom have a huge impact on the defence policy and the future of the British military force. One of the recent issues with regards to the military and the national interest of Britain is the issue regarding the corruption of the arms deals of the United Kingdom with Saudi Arabia. According to Tempest (2007) British Prime Minister Tony Blair has insisted that the allegations of corruption in the arms deals of the UK with Saudi Arabia will have a negative effect on the relationship of Saudi Arabia and the United Kingdom.[5] As mentioned earlier the main task of the royal navy is to protect the interests and objectives of Britain, in the case of the examination on the arms deals of UK with Saudi, the impact on the defence policy is huge, Saudi Arabia and the United Kingdom has a close relationship, especially in fighting terrorism in the world, as well as, security. The issue will hamper the relationship of Saudi and UK and will affect the capabilities of the RN to intervene in peace process in the Middle East. In addition, Tempest stated that because Saudi is closely cooperating with Britain in the fight against terrorism, the issue would create a huge damage in the national security of the United Kingdom. Therefore, the national defence policies of the United Kingdom will be affected, especially in the areas of intelligence.             Aside from the national interests, the objectives of the Royal Navy have a huge impact on the defence policies and the future of the military forces. In order to effectively deliver the objectives of the Royal Navy, the following are the capabilities of RN according to Wikipedia: <ul style="margin-top: 0in; margin-bottom: 0in" type="disc"> <li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%"> Sustenance of the UK Nuclear Deterrent via  the policy of Continuous at Sea Deterrence</li> <li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%"> Transfer of the UK Commando Force</li> <li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%"> Addition of assets to the Joint Force Harrier</li> <li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%"> Addition of assets to the Joint Helicopter Command </li> <li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%"> Sustenance of the Atlantic Patrol Task in the North and South, the Persian Gulf Patrols and other patrol commitments in various parts of the world</li> <li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%"> The transfer of the Mine Counter Measures ability to the United Kingdom and affiliated commitments</li> <li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%"> Stipulation of Hydrographic and meteorological abilities that can be distributed worldwide</li> <li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%"> Protection of the United Kingdom and the European Union Fisheries</li> </ul> The special interests, capabilities and objectives of the United Kingdom have a huge influence in the development in the policies of defence in Britain, take the case of the 9/11 bombings, July 21, 2005 UK bombings and the terrorist scare last 2006 in major airports of the United Kingdom, due to these events the interest of the government in the national security has increased, thus the policies regarding defence and military intelligence have changed. Due to the drastic transformation of the UK defence policies the country was able to prevent a massive terrorist attack in 2006.             The liberation of Iraq is also one of the international interests of Britain; the UK participated when the United States declared war against the regime of Saddam Hussein in Iraq. The special relationship of Britain with the United States is one of the factors why UK participated in the war in Iraq; the interest of UK in partaking in the issues internationally will have an impact on the future of the military forces of the country because Britain will play a huge role in keeping the peace in various parts of the world. As the second largest navy in the world, the armed forces of the United Kingdom will become more visible in the near future and will participate in the affairs of the world.             According to Kaldor[6] (1995) the foreign policy of the United Kingdom is generally described as three overlapping terms, first is the role of Britain as post-imperial power with many post-colonial accountabilities to its previous colonies and close associations to Commonwealth countries, second is the special relationship of the United Kingdom and the United States of America in which the UK deems as a minor super power and made a distinction of itself from other countries in Europe and lastly, the role Britain plays as a European Country and as a member of the European community.             The defence policies of the United Kingdom has evolved over the past years, Kaldor discussed that during the 1960s and 1970s, the defence and foreign policy of the UK changed, and focused more on its role as a European country. The changes that occurred according to Kaldor are the empire was substituted by the Commonwealth; the post-colonial accountabilities were removed and phased out, in 1966 Britain retracted from the Suez Canal, in 1973 it joined the European Community and it dissociated itself from the United States. According to Kaldor, when Margaret Thatcher became the prime minister of the United Kingdom in the 1980s, the emphasis was shifted; Mrs. Thatcher accepted the cold war and the expenditures in defence increased, moreover, the British government supported the distribution of cruise missiles and bought American Trident missiles for Britain. Through this the United Kingdom was able to gain back the idea of the country’s position as one of the great powers in the world. The United States of America and Britain focused on threats by third world countries in which there are an increase of weapons of mass destruction, as well as, the rise of terrorists and drug traffickers around the world.             After the cold war ended the British Armed Forces restructured its military, in 1990 the then Secretary of Defence, Tom King have announced that the British government is evaluating Options for Change. The main objective of the Options of Change is to reduce the expenditures in defence, because the military units deployed in various parts of Europe was no longer relevant after the Soviet Union and the Warsaw pact collapsed. The changes include reducing the manpower for about 18 per cent; a number of the British Army regiments were incorporated, in the Royal Air Force, the bases in Germany was cut in half, the F-4 Phantom II squadrons were retracted from service and the Brimstome missile was abolished and in the Royal Navy the warships was decreased in number[7] (Wikipedia, 2007).             In 2003, the British Government released its Defence White Paper entitled the Delivering Security in a changing world, the paper begin an earnest attempt on the future of the British Armed Forces. According to the Ministry of Defence (2007) the White paper outlines the position of the British Armed Forces which are: ·        The capability of the British Military to support three continuous small to medium operations in which at least one of those is a peace-keeping mission. ·        The capability of the British Military to redistribute forces in a bigger scale. In addition, the Ministry of Defence announced the reforms in the Armed forces of Britain in 2004. The changes in the British Army include, the human labour will be decreased, the battalions will be cut into four and will be deploy elsewhere, the High Velocity Missile of the Army will be cut in half, the Challenger 2 regiment and the AS-90 batteries regiments will be re-role, seven squadrons of the Challenger 2 and six AS-90 sell-propelled gun will be retracted, the infantry battalion will be integrated to form a large one, the British army will gear three artillery regiments with the new system called the lightweight mobile artillery weapon system, and the development of a squadron that will support the creation of the future armoured vehicles. In the Royal Air force, the changes include a decrease in the manpower, the retraction of the SEPECAT Jaguar force in 2007, the maritime patrol aircraft fleet will also be decreased, the purchase of Nimrod MRA 4s will also be reduced, as well as, the Tornado F3 force, Puma helicopters that are based in Northern Ireland, and the Rapier missile launchers.      In the Royal Navy the changes include the reduction of the manpower, as well as, the purchase of new warships, the force in Type 23 frigates, the fleet of the nuclear attack submarine and the force of the mine countermeasure vessels, the patrol fleet in Northern Ireland and the warships will be paid off, the future carrier of the Royal Navy will be purchased and the oldest Type 42 warships will be withdrawn earlier. The changes in the structure of the whole British army and the future developments will have a considerable effect on the security of the United Kingdom. The update on the facilities and equipments of the British Army, Royal Air force and Royal Navy will be more helpful in fighting threats of terrorism; the development of the next generation aircraft carrier by the Royal Navy will be advantageous for the United Kingdom because the offensive air power will be increased and it is capable to function the biggest scope of aircraft with the widest possible functions.             Although most of the changes and development in the operational unit of the armed forces of United Kingdom is the reduction of forces and manpower on various battalions and regiments, in the future it will be more beneficial in the society of Britain because the government is reducing the expenditures, and have focused in acquiring new technologies and intelligence. In addition, the areas in which a number of British Armies, Air Force and Navy were deployed are areas that do not need that much manpower. Redistribution of the manpower in regions and areas that need further security and peace-keeping is a good move by the government because it establishes Britain as a nation having one of the most powerful military.                 Focusing on technology by the Military of Defence has also a positive impact on the security of the country. Today, war is no longer a threat in the society but with the rise of radicals and extremists and after the 911 and London bombings terrorism is now the threat in the society, not just in Britain but all over the world. Terrorists utilise sophisticated devices in order to threaten people, the development of liquid bombs is one of those, and in order to combat the possible threats using new technologies is important and beneficial in the security of the society.             The art of war has evolved over the past years; the practice of war has been subjected to transitions in the range and scope. Mass armies and nuclear weapons emerged. According to Hennessy and McKercher (1996) the term operational art was a result of the publication of the new field manual of the US army called the FM 100-5 operations in 1976 in which it unfold an intellectual revival in the military. Hennessey and McKercher defined operational art as the practice of generals and staff colonels in order to attain success in the operation; operational level on the other hand is the intermediate occurrence that exists between discreet tactics and wider strategy. [8]             The operational level and art of the military are responsible for the effects of the operations whether it is negative or positive. According to Cordray and Romanych (2005) during operational level the aim is usually pointed directly against the forces of the enemy. [9]Once the enemy are defeated, the operational effects do not stop but instead it continues. The concepts of operational art and level are helpful in identifying the capabilities that can be utilised to administer the operational effects. The elements of the operational art, according to DTIC (n.d.) which are very essential in the success of the military operations are: Synergy- the operations are incorporated and occur at the same time, Simultaneity and depth- it is utilised in order to take over the whole structure through force simultaneously, Anticipation- it is an essential element to efficient planning in order to stay vigilant for the unforeseen and favourable circumstances, Balance- it is a right combination of capabilities and forces in the joint force of the military, Leverage- it is utilised to enforce the will of the military on the enemy, raise the crisis on the part of the enemy, and sustain the enterprise, Timing and tempo- it aids the military forces in controlling the action, remaining difficult to foretell, and functioning beyond the capability of the enemy to respond, with the aim to explore capabilities and restrain the enemy, Operational reach and approach- it talks about the scope in which the operational joint forces can rationally function in the widest sense, Forces and Function- the functions and forces of the enemy are usually aimed operational joint forces in order to develop a contingence area between the enemy and friendly forces, Arranging operations- it is usually composed of a mixture of concurrent and sequential functions to attain the favourable end state status speedily, Centres of gravity- these are the abilities, characteristics, and position of the forces in which it obtains its physical strength, desire to fight and the independence of action, Direct versus indirect- it is the attack of the joint force command on the centre of gravity of the enemy directly or indirectly, Decisive points- it aids the military force to obtain an advantage over the enemy and it may have a huge impact on the result of the action, Culmination- it can be either applied as an offence or defence. In the offence, it occurs when the combat power of the enemy does not outmatch the defender, the military attains culmination when the enemy does not have the capability to defend successfully, and lastly Termination- it is an important part of operational art and strategy wherein the forces know when to the stop the operations and how to secure the attained advantages[10]. These concepts of operational art, as well as, the operational level will aid military forces in providing the positive operational effects. Once the military integrated the concepts of operational art and level, as well as, understanding profoundly the elements of the operational art the outcomes will be successful. The British Royal Navy has given huge amount of contributions in the maritime power. From the early 1500s until now the British Royal Navy still exists, one of the contributions of the Royal Navy is when it used steam power in 1821 for Comet and 1824 for Lightning in the expedition to Algiers (Hill, 1995). According to Harding (2004) the innovation of the British Royal Navy is one of its contributions, moreover, the development of operational research as a discipline after World War II and the instruments of management science wherein a favourable prosecution of the war, and by the early 1960s, cost benefit analysis had been utilised to various aspects of the naval power and operational research had transformed into more ambitious Systems Analysis.[11]  The constant innovation of the British Royal Navy has made a huge impact on the maritime power of the world. Although it is only second to the United States in terms of size, the technology that it utilises is at par with that of the US. Currently, the British Royal Navy is developing the largest fleet carrier in the world, thus establishing itself as the premier navy in the world.     Commanding a team especially in the battlefield is difficult may it be water, land or air. Having a good and effective leadership is the key in the success of the operations. According to Campanale[12] (2001) the determinants of an effective leader are he must possess the seven principles, and these are: Discipline- it is a significant factor in leadership, a disciplined leader performs his usual duties extremely well. If the leader does very good in basic functions, he will definitely perform his responsibility in the battlefield extremely. Compassion- it counterbalances the disciplinarian in the leader which means that after the leader have disciplined its subordinates he will still help that individual. Courage- in the military bravery is different from courage. Courage is the boldness in doing the right things, and accepting the accountability of taking care of your subordinates, especially in the battlefield. Leaders must be brave enough to assume responsibility and the risks involve in it. Perspective- a perspective leader looks back at the past and analysing the mistakes and right decisions, and looking in the future and assessing what will happen. Desire to Volunteer- Leaders volunteer not because they will receive a reward or recognition afterwards, but because it is the appropriate thing to do. Even though a leader has ma many tasks and responsibilities, volunteering even a little will be welcomed by your subordinates. Honesty- being honest with yourself is a trait any leader must possess, honesty in oneself is a difficult trait to achieve, but if a person not just a military leader is honest, it will become a discipline in all the things that you will do. Humility- Great leaders are modest with their accomplishments, they take their responsibilities seriously, but they still have a sense of humour. A humble leader does not forget where he came from and they never demand others to do the things he would not undergo.             The determinants of a good commander cannot be solely relied on technology or knowledge in order to achieved success in the operations. The combination of technology, knowledge and the right attitudes and characterises ensures a successful operation.             According to Hopkinson (2000) the Defence and Foreign Policy of the United Kingdom has been plagued by shortage of resources ever since 1945.[13] According to RPS[14] (2004) as long as the United Kingdom remains as one of economic superpowers in the world, a member of the European Union, it is bound on the agreement with the NATO Alliance and sits in the UN Security Council, there is a huge possibility that the government of the United Kingdom will continue to utilised its armed forces as an intermediary for Foreign policy and in the affairs of the world. Moreover, according to RPS, the current trends in the defence planning and procurement in Britain is establishing a clear arrangement. The Defence white paper that was released in 2003 have pointed the essential aspects in the shape and size of the British Armed Forces which are the need of the British Armed Forces equipped for disposal on military services abroad, the largest operation envisioned is a conflict in the European Union, the British Armed forces must be able to perform a full scale operations from fighting in wars until peace support missions, Britain must maintain its active participation in Europe, Africa, the Gulf and South Asia, as the threat of terrorism becomes widespread the British armed forces is required to participate in the prevention of conflict, peace support and operations to counter the terrorists, multiple and simultaneous small and medium range operations will remain the most relevant factor in force planning, and Britain must retain a wide spectrum of land, air, logistics and maritime to transport the restricted national operations.             The assumptions of RPS in the current trends of foreign policy of the United Kingdom are the following: ·        The British Armed Forces will require carrying the full scale of operations from fighting in wars to the peace-keeping operations. ·         The British Armed Forces will carry on the necessity to train for fighting in wars. ·        The British Armed Forces must be ready at all times to affix the peace-keeping operations, and also intervention at short notice. ·        In the future the British Armed Forces will be skilled enough to have large scale operations that need a capacity for surge training. ·        The size and pattern of the British Armed Forces will most likely be retained in the future, and the trend will be towards expeditionary operations. ·        There will be an ongoing necessity for changes in the armour. The future trends of the United Kingdom with regards to its defence policy have an impact on the development of the component capability at the operational level. Training in peace-keeping and war is one of the major focuses in the current trend, therefore during the operational level the army can be able to link the tactics and strategies in order to succeed in the strategic objectives, they can also arrange the events in order to attain the goals of the operations, and administering the resource in order to maintain the events at the operational level. The British Armed Forces will be more visible in the coming years, especially with regards to issues and affairs in the different parts of the world. Although the number of manpower will still remain, the capabilities of the British Army, Air force and Navy will be more developed in terms of fighting and peace-keeping. The operations of the British Armed Force will gear towards military services abroad, thus the training of the manpower will be more extensive to be able to perform their duties. The advancement of the technology in the Armed forces will be beneficial especially during operational levels because technology makes it easier for the soldiers to communicate and strategise. Overall, these new trends will be advantageous to the components, especially during the level of operations because it emphasises on training in war and peace-keeping. As one of the members of G8 and having one of the biggest army in the world, Britain’s armed forces play a crucial role in the issues and affairs in this world. In the future, UK’s military will be more active in participating in the events in the world.             According to Cardarelli (2002) during military operations, especially overseas, the fundamental responsibility of the military leaders is to ensure the health of the environment even if the operation is over.[15] The essential elements for component environmental strategies are: <ul style="margin-top: 0in; margin-bottom: 0in" type="disc"> <li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%"> Cultivate a sustainable ethic- cultivating a set of principle with the right conduct within the Army in which it leads beyond the agreement to the environmental laws to the sustainability of the human and natural environments. It is important especially after the operation is over, almost all the environment are destroyed therefore having an ethical accountability is significant to help the affected people and the environment.</li> <li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%"> Strengthen the Operations of the Armed Forces- encouraged the operational ability of the armed forces through decreasing the amount environmental resources, capabilities and spares at a deployed location by more sustainable practices. The remnants of war is numerous and most of those are toxic materials that pose a threat to the health and the environment of the people, reducing the military footprints will lead to a more sustainable progress of the society inflicted by the operations.</li> <li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%"> Satisfy the requirements necessary for the test, training, and mission of the armed forces- In the armed forces, individuals that undergo training and testing in order to meet the mission requirements must do it in a more sustainable practice in order to maintain the resources in land, water and air. </li> <li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%"> Reduce the cost of the impacts and total ownership- downplaying the total cost of the materials, systems, operations and facilities through incorporating the practice and principles of environment sustainability. It is both significant in the army because the expenditures will be reduced at the same time, it sustains the affected environment. </li> <li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%"> Improve Welfare- improving the lives of the soldiers, whether they are in the operation or not, the civilians, and the communities through teaching sustainability in the environment. The people in the community are the future soldiers of the country, therefore teaching them the importance of sustainable practices in the environment will help them in the future. </li> <li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%"> Push Innovation- as numerous issues arise in the world today, the challenges in the army become more difficult. Technology makes it easier to address these issues, especially in the environment. </li> </ul> Joint Doctrine, according to Joint Electronic Library (2006) is the basic principles that guide and aid the military forces in an integrated action towards a general objective; it involves techniques, procedures and tactics.[16]  According to the Joint Electronic Library, the process of joint doctrine provides assurance that the Services, combatant commands and the Joint staff participated. The process of the Joint doctrine is the following: Step 1: Project Proposal- the proposal is submitted by the combatant command, the joint staff or the services to fill the existing empty operations. Then the J-7 declares the requirements legal with the combatant command and the services. Afterwards the J-7 begins the directives of the program. Step 2: Program Directive- the group of assistants in J-7 are from the services and the Commander in Chief. The program directive includes the references, project, milestones and the individuals who will create the draft. The J-7 then releases the program directives to the commander in chief, services or the joint staff. Step 3: Two Drafts- the lead agents choose the primary review authority to create the publication. Then the primary review authority creates two planned publication. Finally, the staffs of the primary review authority draft with the commander in chief, joint staff and the services. Step 4: CJCS Approval- the lead agent sends the proposed publication to the joint staff and then the joint staffs assumes responsibility for the publication makes changes and readies the publication for coordination with the Commander in chief and the services; finally the joint staff manages the staffing for the approval for the joint publication. Step 5: Assessments and Revision- the commander in chief evaluates the publication and after 18 to 24 months the director of the J-7 will seek a written report from the services and the combatant commands regarding the quality of the publication and the changes and revisions it must undergo, and the publication is revised not more than five years after it was created.             The joint doctrine lists the procedures and tactics that the military must do during and after the operations, the joint doctrine can be utilised during training of the armed forces in order for them to be prepared in the challenges of the operations especially overseas.             The maritime has huge contributions to the component capability to the joint level of effectiveness. According to Boyce [17](1999) the typical characteristics of the maritime such as tactical, logistic self-sufficiency, flexibility in the operations and reach are still important in this new era, maritime plays a significant role in the strategy which involves military services abroad. The components cannot function properly without the maritime, due to the fact that the maritime forces provide self-sufficiency and reach, the maritime can operate in any part of this world without depending on any country for support, aside from that the maritime cab deploy, redeploy and withdraw operations. Moreover, according to Boyce, they can provide transport, stores and a wide array of facilities, a setting base, and airfields without violating sovereignty and total invulnerability. Lastly, Boyce stated that the maritime forces can deliver the fastest means of positioning the forces in logistical, tactical and self-sustaining manner over long distance, delivering priceless capacity for early visibility, thus it has the ability to stop the emerging crises. The maritime also has the capacity to move to a higher and lower scale of the operational intensity that can still be able to permit the government to convey clear messages.      Without the maritime, the operational joint level will render inefficient because the armed forces become independent because of them. They can provide bases for the aircraft of the air force and the ships can carry the resources of the military based on land.             Changes in the British Armed Forces might affect the joint operational level in the future; however the impact of the transformation will be minimal. Instead of the negative effects, there will be more positive effects because all of the operations will be joint, therefore the functions of the armed forces will be more efficient because the units will no longer be independent, furthermore it is easier for the armed forces to function and navigate in a foreign country in which they are deployed. The operations of the British Armed forces will be expeditionary in nature, thus the ability of the components in the military is significant, the changes will focus on training of the individuals therefore the components are capable of delivering the required tasks. The British Armed Forces will collaborate with allies, thus the knowledge of the military, air force and navy will be more extensive due to this coordination, and they will be more competent in the operations because they were able to acquire new information and knowledge from different armed forces worldwide.             In the operational joint level of the military, a number of challenges may arise. The military, air force and the navy are participating in the operational joint level because it is more advantageous for the three divisions of the armed forces. They will be stronger and information can be passed easily from one component to another because all of the components are joint.  According to DTIC[18] (2005), there are four major challenges that may emerge during the joint operations, and these are: Catastrophic Challenges- it include obtaining, possessing, developing and using weapons of mass destruction. Prevention of these acts is a challenge for the joint operation because of the inefficiency to determine, track, fix and target these people. In order to prevent the acts of terrorism to happen the propagation of technologies that can identify and combat weapons of mass destructions enables the operational joint level to prevent the catastrophic attacks. Irregular challenges- the opponents that use atypical methods and techniques to oppose the usual benefits of stronger antagonists, they function in a comparatively safe and unidentified place. The challenges include inadequate knowledge of the culture, such as language which increases the difficulty of the challenge. Disruptive challenges- it may come from opponents that create and utilise new technologies to nullify the advantages of huge armies in the world in the important operational areas. Enemies and terrorists who are able to obtain a new technology in order to gain advantage will be a threat to the joint forces, as well as, the national security. Traditional Challenges- a traditional enemy will use common forms of military force to challenge the British armed forces, as well as, the allies. The major challenge is to maintain the adequate abilities against the opponent, at the same time, efficiently handles and addresses the three other challenges posed by the adversaries. Technology has aided the military forces in countering the opponents however, he rapid advancement in technology also benefited the adversaries because they utilised it to create new means and ways to terrorise the society. According to the White House (1995) the advantages of technology in the armed forces include establishing the national strategy of the military because it allows the armed forces to subject the most powerful military through utilising both the human and economic resources, technology delivers technical solutions in order to attain the future capabilities of joint war fighting with the allies, and technology enables the military to conduct its operations and peace-keeping missions more efficiently especially in a foreign country. Technology also enables the military to communicate with other joint forces and allies to effectively carry out the operations.[19] However, technology has its share of disadvantages, according to Miller [20](2003) critics have pointed out some of the disadvantages which include the commercial computers of the military which are susceptible to crashing and hacking. In addition, the deficiency of bandwidth also delays the movements of the enemies by a couple of minutes. In addition, the Global positioning system is also susceptible to problems because sometimes GPS does not work and it is also vulnerable to immobilisation by the adversary.             The British Armed Forces is one of the biggest military in the world. As long as the United Kingdom is one of the richest and most powerful nations in this world their armed forces will play a vital role in the affairs of the world. With the proposed changes of the Armed Forces and the joining of the Military, Air Force and Royal Navy, the armed forces will be more intensified. In the joint operations of the three the Royal Navy will be a key on the operations, therefore the United Kingdom is investing on the fleets of the Royal Navy. The British Armed Forces will be more visible in various parts of the world in the future.   Credit:ivythesis.typepad.com

Transfer of the UK Commando Force

The armed forces and military of a country determine how powerful the nation is. The history of the world has told us that the nations th...

HISTORY OF THE ROYAL NAVY

I.       INTRODUCTION The law enforcement of the United Kingdom contributes to the whole lot of the perpetuation of the democratic order in the nation. All have objectives and collective guiding principles generally geared towards the protection of the citizens and the Crown. No matter how noble the intentions and how effective they implement these ends, individual efforts from these law enforcement bodies may only achieve their goals in a limited degree. Joint operations are thus necessary, indispensable even, in carrying out the mandate of such organizations. This study intends to discuss that issue particularly in the case of the British Royal Navy. In the same manner, the discussions regarding the joint capabilities of the other forces in the United Kingdom will be taken into account.     A.   HISTORY OF THE ROYAL NAVY   B.   INTERNATIONAL SYSTEM   C.   UNITED KINGDOM POLICY   II.    FUTURE THREAT   A.   CHANGING ENVIRONMENT   B.   TOURISM   C.   ASYMMETRIC WAR   III.  INTEGRATION BETWEEN FORCES OF THE UNITED KINGDOM Joint Operations in the military is one of the directives held closely by the Services in UK. The creation of programmes and schemes by the armed forces has been done to strengthen the integration capabilities of the Services. The following discussions present some of the established joint programmes held by the services. In the same manner, the discussion will present the framework in which the operational level of the joint forces of the UK is founded.      A.   JOINT FORCE HARRIER The Joint Fore Harrier (JFH) is one of the joint operations held by both the Royal Navy and the Royal Air Force. The Royal Navy’s Invincible Class Carriers are the main contribution of the service in this endeavour. These aircraft carriers serve as the remote bases of the joint forces with the Royal Navy in charge of the accommodation of the Harriers GR7s. Along with the RAF, the Royal Navy is at the disposal of the operations held by the Joint Force Harrier. They could also be taken in the helm of NATO actions and initiatives in the international level. This is similarly one of the attempts of the Armed Forces to address the continuing trend of expeditionary warfare.   B.   JOINT HELICOPTER COMMAND The Joint Helicopter Command is a combination of both ground and air elements from the British Army, Royal Air Force and the Royal Navy. The initiative is also an offshoot of the Strategic Defence Review put into effect in 1991. The initiative has triggered an unprecedented combination and integration of both Aviation Attack and Combat Support resources of the Services. Basically, the main focus of this initiative is to provide support using the helicopter command controlled by the military.   The main contribution of the Royal Navy at this point is the provision of support helicopters that they mange. This is composed of four squadrons (845, 846, 847, 848) carrying Sea King HC4s, Lynx AH7s, and Gazelles. Collectively, these squadrons are called the Commando Helicopter Force (CHF) under the command of the HQ Land. The addition of the Royal Navy in this initiative shows the capability of the said service to provide a degree of amphibious character for the force. Specifically, the RN have provided landing docks capable of handling the needs of the helicopters from the Royal Navy and the Royal Air Force.   C.   JOINT RAPID REACTION FORCE Quick and immediate reaction, these are among the major requirement of modern warfare. The Ministry of Defence have taken steps in realising these requirements such that the services are able to contend with the demands of modern warfare. The creation of the Strategic Defence Review served as an impetus in creating a joint effort between the three services in creating a pool of military units readily available for action. This gave birth to the Joint Rapid Reaction Force.   In general, the joint operations held by this programme seek to attend short-notice military actions. This also mean that the actions taken are normally medium-scale and not as grand as war theatres similar to the Dessert Storm held in 1991. Moreover, it could also be used to handle relief operations aiding disaster-ridden areas all over as directed by either the NATO, or coalition forces from the EU and UN. Thus, the Royal Navy, aside from being under the auspices of the Crown, are also subject to launch echelons for other international organisations.   Being in charge of majority of the transportation and mobility of the armed forces, the Royal Navy has contributed much to the Joint Rapid Reaction Force. With its capability of carrying equipment, aircrafts (helicopter and jet fighters), and servicemen, the Royal Navy has control over the resources that are deemed vital for the success of the operations.   D.   STRATEGIC EFFECT OF THE JOINT OPERATIONS The joint operations held by the British Forces have significant implications not only in the national front, but also with the rest of the world as well. The strategic effects of the joint operations are indicated in the Joint Operation Publications (2004). Specifically, there are eight perceived strategic effects held in the said publication. It indicated that the Ministry of Defence have taken measures to steer clear from the protection of individual interest and take on a more solid stance in involving itself in the global scene. One such strategic effect held by the joint operations is to prevent. This means that the operations are geared towards “fostering regional and national security.” This intention is to be achieved by addressing instability, reducing the production of weapons (WMEs), advocate security reform, build a capable force that would deal with local crises, and encourage such an initiative to the international sector.   Another strategic effect held by the joint operations of the British Armed Forces is to stabilise. Interagency and jointness in this initiative is stressed by the publication. Moreover, the end intention of this strategic effect is to establish a “set and stable” environment needed to re-establish a normalcy. Along with political and economic endeavours, military actions are thus required to reassure, reconstruct, and provide help for the state. The third strategic effect is to contain an adversary or a crisis. This means that the direct involvement of the military and the consequent joint operation endeavours are required. In some instances, it is indicated that the military involvement may act as the third party. To deter is the third strategic effect. This is an attempt to use proper communication of the possible effects and possible costs of an action held by an adversary. In this effect, the crisis or adversary is restrained from using its influence or further effect in public through proper dissuasion.   The fifth effect is somewhat an extreme version of the formed strategic effect. This effect intends to coerce the crisis or an adversary. The joint operations of UK intend to use such force or use it as a threat to force a crisis or an adversary into submission. In order to make this possible for the British Army, an establishment of a credible army and an effective communication in clarifying a basic course of action that the country intends is required. Along with these, it is also important that a clear political will from UK should be formed such that the strategic effect is properly implemented.   The joint operation endeavours of UK also seek to disrupt the overall capability of an adversary. In this context, the freedom of the adversary’s wherewithal to act in retaliation or even advance an offensive towards UK is taken away through military actions. These actions could be indirect or direct. This means that the joint forces could attack head on with the adversary’s offensive or there even take away the adversary’s capability or willingness to tread on with the battle. This brings about the discussion to the strategic effect of defeat. In disrupting the capacity of the adversary to further fight, a subsequent consequence is peace time brought about by the end of fighting. It is at this point that the joint operations advance the political objectives put forth by the Kingdom. The last strategic effect is to destroy an enemy state or non-state enemy. At this point, the ability of the adversary to build up an action worthy of retaliation is no longer possible. The resources or even the actual framework of holding the state or non-state enemy of UK is totally confounded by the joint operations advanced by the military. In this instance, the possibility of returning to further hostilities is unlikely.              E.   OPERATIONAL LEVEL All the services operating under the UK flag have to work together as one unit such that the political and national principles held by the country is held firmly. The operational level at which the Royal Navy is included embraces the link on which the other forces’ tactical actions complete the inclusive accomplishment of the British Defence Doctrine. The operational level at which the services employ have several characteristics: freedom of action; joint and multinational; application of resources; total effect and public support.   All these characteristics are held together such that the operational head commander will be able to maximise the potential of the joint operations. In this aspect, he will be able to mesh together the entire capacities seeking to realise the initiatives held by the state. The following discussion will present the framework of the Operational Level held by the joint operations of the military in UK. This description of the held below will also indicate the role of the Royal Navy in building this framework of the joint operations.        1.     Manoeuverist Approach   The Manoeuverist approach is a strategy held closely by the British military. It is characterised as an operation seeking to destroy the cohesion held by an adversary by means of orchestrated actions. These actions tend to create really violent repercussions for the adversary thus weakening its ability to retaliate or launch another attack. According to the Joint Operation Publications (2004), this approach held by the British Joint Forces cleaves to four aspects that essentially execute and visualise the framework. Stated in the publication includes four actions: shape, attack, protect, and exploit. The Royal Navy, being one of the integral elements of the joint operations, has also been able to contribute to this framework. The following initiatives are discussed on the items below. It is in this section where the services rendered by the Royal Navy will be presented.    a)    Shaping the Environment This part of the framework indicates the command and control needed by the UK military to essentially dissuade the adversary, state or non-state, in carrying on their actions. Specifically, the strategy held in this level is to create an image that will generally make an adversary think twice in carrying out their resolve. The strategy takes on the ability of the military to communicate their capability and by removing any means of security on the part of the enemy. This makes them susceptible to attacks from the joint forces.   In this context, the Royal Navy could help in the information operation (Info Ops) in eroding the motivation of the adversary. They could provide intelligence for the Info Ops to use in forming information that will demoralise the enemy. Such information could be anything that will promote doubt and uncertainty on the part of the enemy. Another course of action that the Royal Navy could do is to perform exercises that will present the powers and capabilities of their force. A spot on the media (be it in the television, radio, or newspaper) would be helpful in establishing the strength of the Royal Navy not only for its adversaries but also for the citizen of UK and the rest of the world. Such spots could be a report on the upgrading of the aircrafts held by the Invincible Class Carriers or the munitions advancement research that is taking place for improving the defence capabilities of its carriers. Other forms such as internet articles and improving its website could present a media opportunity for the Royal Navy in shaping the perception of the public on the military potentials that the Royal navy could contribute in the joint operations of UK and its other alliances.        b)    Destroying the Capabilities of the Enemy In this framework, holds true to the manoeuvrist approach where the assault on the cohesion of the adversary is targeted on the weakest point, not with the strengths held by the company. It is the areas where the adversary’s cohesion rest on that should be taken into consideration. These are the areas where military actions should be targeted; it these areas that if attacked, could destroy the very essence of the adversary’s resolve.   The joint forces have takes strategic plans in establishing this component. Such elements of the framework include the synchronisation of firepower and manoeuvre; tempo and simultaneity; surprise; and asymmetric warfare. Synchronisation of firepower and manoeuvre basically pertains to strategic bombing. In the case of the Royal Navy, they are able to fulfil this element through the Joint Force Harrier and the Joint Rapid Reaction Force. Constant exercise with the other Services reinforces the capability to strike strategically in joint operations. In the context of tempo and simultaneity, it essentially points to driving the adversary to the point where it doesn’t have any more options but to surrender. This may be caused by the use of all the resources held by the force and thus implementing a level of jointness that no other country could surpass. The element of surprise is seen by the joint operations of UK as an important aspect of their strategy. Timing is everything in this category. The adversary has to be caught ignorant of any action. This could be implemented by the Royal Navy by using its submarines and its special forces in carrying out certain missions. Stealth and secrecy will be the advantage held by the Royal Navy which will be seen in the capabilities discussed in the latter part of the paper.   Credit:ivythesis.typepad.com

HISTORY OF THE ROYAL NAVY

I. INTRODUCTION The law enforcement of the United Kingdom contributes to the whole lot of the perpetuation of the democ...

AN ORGANISATIONAL INQUIRY: THE UNITED STATES AIR FORCE

The United States Air Force: An Organizational Inquiry             Recently the United States Air Force is facing some issues and problems regarding the lack of leadership commands that it now faces in the current resignation of Air Force secretary      last January and that of his Undersecretary    a few weeks ago. The Pentagon decided to take over of the buying power of the said military arm since they believe that there is no one yet who is in the position to take on the responsibility on some military decision-making and tasks that are currently needed to be addressed. The Department of Defense is now taking in charge to support and to assist the Air Force Command by overseeing and providing advice on important Air Force programs during a time of transition. It was clarified however that within the next six months, a new Air Force Secretary will be appointed. At present though, the Air Force is under the temporary command of Lt. Col.                All organizations whether it be in the business industry, socio-civic, private or government-regulated face the challenge of running the whole system according to the principles as well as the goals and objectives of the system. The organization normally is confronted with how it will operate accordingly to meet the expectations and put up with the responsibilities and duties of the members as well as the departments that make up the whole system. The changes in the surroundings of the workplace in the internal as well as in the external environment and affairs make influence the overall operations of the structure. The military is not an exemption in this regard even for the fact that the defense team of a country undergo regulations that are very systemic and defined. There are internal as well as external affairs, issues and problems that should be attended to in order for the whole organization to function fully and provide the necessary outputs being demanded. That is why it is interesting to look at a certain military arm experience a challenge of change in the system to be able to fit in the constantly changing global and wide social context on which it operates. Air Force Organizational Structure             Just like other organizations, the United States Air Force is composed of complicated and systematic divisions. The people in this particular service are classified not just according to ranks. Since the recruits in this defense arm came from different state with varying cultural orientation, it is but expected that the people in this service are also diverse. Their skills and knowledge on other fields and disciplines are also considered in assigning them in particular units. The basic chain of command in the US Air Force include the Airmen, the Section, the Flight, the Squadron, the Group, the Wing, the Numbered Air Force, the Major Command (MAJCOM) and the Air Force.             The Airman is a single Air Force member who is the most basic unit in the organization. This could be the training officer, a trainee, a pilot, an engineer, a medical person and other staff who works or is in the service in the Air Force. The Section is composed of two or more Airmen. The word is also the term used to refer to the place where a particular Airman works. Each section is composed of element commanded by the element leader. Examples include the Administrative Section and the life Support Section. It should be noted however that an Airman does not necessarily need to be a member or part of a section. There are Airmen who do not belong to a Section but are instead members of a Flight or Group. Two or more Airmen can make up a Flight. The case can also be that of two or more Sections that compose a Flight. There are three types of Flight namely the Alpha, the Numbered and the Functional Flights. Numbered Flights incorporate small mission elements into an organized unit just like in the basic training. Alpha Flights are components of a Squadron and with identical missions while the Functional Flights are composed of elements with specific missions like the Military Personnel Flight and the Social Actions Flight. Normally the individual people or Section that will be part of a Flight depends upon how the Squadron is organized.             Two or more Flights form a Squadron which is the lowest level of command with a headquarters element. In the Air Force, the Lt. Col. is the Squadron commander although smaller Squadrons maybe commanded by majors, captains, and sometimes even lieutenants and are usually identified numerically and by function. A Group in the Air Force usually consists of two or more Squadrons with similar functions. For example, the Logistics Group will include the Supply, Transportation, Aircraft and Maintenance Squadrons while the flying Squadrons will be assigned in the Operations Group just like the Dental and the Medical Squadrons in the medical Group. Normally, the Groups take on the number of the Wing they are assigned to and the commander is usually a colonel. The Wing is composed of two or more Groups and there is only one Wing in an Air Force base. The commanders in the Wings are usually called the Installation Commanders. There are two types of Wings. The Composite Wing operates more than one kind of aircraft and individual composite wings can have different missions. Objective Wings on the other hand consolidate responsibilities and clarify the line of command and may have operational missions such as air combat, flying training or airlift, Objective Wings also provide support to a MAJCOM or a geographically separated unit (GSU) and could have specialized missions. But whatever the Wing’s mission, every Wing conforms to the concept of “one base, one wing, one boss”. Wing commanders usually hold the rank of Brigadier General. A Numbered Air Force is usually assigned for geographical purposes and primarily used only during wartime. When there are no threats to peace, they generally consist of a limited number of headquarters staff who will prepare and maintain the plans for wartime. The MAJCOMs are where the Wings usually make direct report and the MAJCOMs report directly to the Headquarters, the Air Force.             There is no specific number of individuals or personnel who belong in a particular element because the size of the element usually depends on the type of unit and mission. The demand of the function of the profession dictates the size or number of specific people who will belong in a particular unit. Communication within the Air Force The highly technological global setting that we face at present, demands that communication and interaction between individuals are channeled in the most efficient way possible. The advances in communication technology like the popularity of the wireless communication, the Internet and the all-seeing roaming satellites around the planet makes it easy to connect with different individuals in our society. Yet these advances in communication technology are all wasted if interaction and shared meanings between communicating people are not employing the same language game in the same context. The US Air Force is a complex organization operating in varying environments. The members of this service themselves also came from different cultural orientation. The diversity within the service is in itself a challenge in the communication setting in the organization. The systemic structure presented above likewise contributes to the challenge of efficient communication in the Air Force. Communication plays a vital role in the efficient military procedures and strategies tat Air Force does. The line of command is from the commander to the pilots wherein obedience keeps the mission in full operation. The problem with this kind of communication is that the troop is unaware of the procedures of the mission unless the instructions are laid out to them by the commander. Efficient communication process is necessary in all types of organization in order to reach out to all members of the organization. In the Air Force, there are challenges that need to be overcome in terms of good communication processes inside the organization. These include the geographic dispersion of members, the diverse organizational elements, significant part-time organizational membership, the bureaucratic structures and the operating environment. According to (2001) there are three classifications of communication challenges that the Air Force faces: those posed by organizational characteristics, those posed by organizational environment and communication constraints between and among individual members. Issues and problems on the organizational nature and characteristics of the said organization can be overcome through an effective centralized communication strategy that the leaders and figures of authority in the organization may examine and study to provide better and more efficient communication among all members of the said defense arm. To answer the diverse organizational elements and job specifications within the Air Force in which each formed subculture exhibits their own unique ways and trends,     recommended that senior leaders must be able to communicate their message of a single overarching vision to a varied audience. The bureaucratic structure and the possibility of miscommunication and misinterpretations of command and orders from the figures of authority to the troops in the field should also be given proper consideration. Reservists or those who are in the service for part-time duties only should also make it a point to make up with the trainings that they miss compared to what the full-time members receive. Since the environment on which the Air Force operates constantly change, the organization should have the ability to transform itself in order to fit and conform to such changes for more effective operations. The senior leaders should allow the troops the freedom to shape and decide on their portions of the organization consistent with the guidance of the senior leaders themselves. Updates of commands, orders, mission, strategies and plans should be frequently made for efficient assignments by utilizing the processes of good communication strategies. Other communication challenges include the tendency of individuals to lack guidance when they are unmotivated to seek it, construing meanings in the lack of leadership and dealing with conflicting information as well as information overload. All these should be addressed effectively so that the Air Force will be able to provide the service that the country deserves.   The Line of Command and Leadership             The ever changing security environment in the operational domain of the Air Force contributes to the complex dimension of the said profession. The threats that regularly appear to the headquarters are the constant concern of the senior leaders and staff of the organization. The fact that the United States military forces fall under the elected and the appointed civilians also pose issues and problems in running and overall functioning of the organization. The leadership strategies are likewise in constant change whenever there is a need to replace the former commander in chief. This demands adjustment not just on the part of the people who will be closely working with the new officer but also transformation whether immediate or long-term on all the people and the structuring of the organization.  Another complex dimension of the structure of the Air Force is their external relation with other defense arms of the country namely the Navy and the Army. It is answerable to the Department of Defense which is constitutionally designed to balance the judicial and legislative bodies of the national administration. The Congress also influences the decisions that will be enacted in the Air Force since the budget is duly accorded to the organization through the approval of the members of the Congress.  (1994) stated that leadership remains to be the most baffling arts and as long as we do not know exactly what makes men get up out the hole in the ground and go forward in the face of death at a word from another man, leadership will remain one of the highest and most elusive of qualities. It will remain an art. In the online article      looked deeper into the      Leadership model which highlights the appropriate leadership style based on the “maturity” or “development level” of the followers and yet it does not adequately address other military considerations such as the level at which leadership is exercised; different styles that may be required because of the demands of combat; staff versus operational leadership; or the differing styles appropriate to service, joint, or combined leadership. He further summarized the substance of some studies and theories which reflects a gradual evolution from an authoritarian leadership style based on       orientation which assumes that followers are not sufficiently mature or motivated to be allowed much autonomy to a democratic orientation that seeks to motivate the employee to feel that he or she is a contributing part of the organization. That evolution has contributed to the development of total quality management (TQM) and a quality Air Force (QAF) that seeks to further empower the employee. According to the total quality philosophy, “the challenge of our leaders is to invert the organizational pyramid and change the role of the leader or manager to a more supportive and empowering one.”             The entirety of the Air Force is composed of the regular Air Force, the Air National Guards and the Air Force Reserve and includes eight major commands which boasts an enlisted force of 288, 720 under the command of 69, 466 officers. The Secretary of the Air Force is the civilian head of the Air Force who is responsible for the formulation and implementation of Air Force policies consistent with the national security plan. He is appointed by the President with Senate approval and reports to the Secretary of Defense yet he has no command authority. The Chief of Staff of the Air Force is the top uniformed position in the Air Force, a member of the Joint Chiefs of Staff and is responsible for the general readiness of the US Air Force without direct command authority. The MAJCOMs, Numbered Air Force, Wings, Group, Squadron and Flights are all under the command and supervision of the Secretary and the Chief of Staff of the Air Force.          The US Air Force is a highly diverse and complex organization. The nature and characteristics of the environment on which it operates as well as the varying personalities and cultural orientation of its members confronts the organization with lack of effective leadership and good communication of commands and orders between and among senior officers and the individual troop members. A lot of its members are deployed all over the world, living in a cultural environment that is unfamiliar and foreign. The wide dispersion and the geographic constraints that beset the operations of the organization and the rapid and unpredictable technological changes make it difficult to accommodate and live up to the expectations that the society demands from each and every personnel of this particular defense arm.             It would be of great help to all the members and to the whole organization itself to employ efficient communication measures that could be utilized in order to answer and attend to the responsibilities of the service.                                     References:   Credit:ivythesis.typepad.com

AN ORGANISATIONAL INQUIRY: THE UNITED STATES AIR FORCE

The United States Air Force: An Organizational Inquiry Recently the United States Air Force is facing some issues and proble...

MILITARY ALLIANCES OF THE GULF STATES

The location of the Persian Gulf has made the region an important economic and strategic position. Due to the geological strategic changes during the last two decades the region suffered a prolonged period of tension and instability. The roots of instability mainly arise out of frontier disputes, territorial claims, ideological differences and supranational intervention (,2001). In fact in 1990, a war erupted in the Gulf when Iraq invaded Kuwait, with military aides coming from the U.S., the Operation Desert Storm was a success against Iraq. After the Cold War era, traditional military activities around the world have abated while its humanitarian purposes and conflict resolution roles increased (, 2001). Militaries paramount of concern is always protecting its own nation’s sovereignty and security. War is always considered as a last and desperate option for most of the countries. Gulf States have always been very concerned about its borders and territorial claims. Military agencies among these states are beefed up to insure security borders and defense. Other than that, because of the significant role of the Gulf to world economy, military agencies are also assigned the task of securing the smooth flow of trades, most especially its important product, the oil, along the Gulf. Modern military thinkers know that alliances are important to security. The Gulf States realized the importance of cooperation in securing not only their borders but the entire Gulf as well. Because of this, militaries are also being diplomats by forging ties with other states military agencies. The Gulf States formed the Gulf Cooperation Council for this purposes. Because of this, the modern military agency in the Gulf is not only concerned of protecting its borders and nation’s security, it also plays a vital role in ensuring no economic sabotage would happen, with the importance of oil to almost all countries economy, a sabotage in the Region would bring about sudden economic activity halt to nations who are solely dependent on oil for their energy source. Lastly, modern military agencies are also modern diplomats, forging ties and alliances with its neighboring states to ensure a more effective security in the region. References:   Credit:ivythesis.typepad.com

MILITARY ALLIANCES OF THE GULF STATES

The location of the Persian Gulf has made the region an important economic and strategic position. Due to the geo...