Research Topics: Writing Tips

TIPS ON WRITING

August 29, 2007       Tips on Writing         Consider whether one of the two marked words is necessary to the meaning of your sentence or whether these words are in the correct order.     Example:                             Instead of: The outcome of these interacting units is typically of an                                    if…then… form: e.g., if you encounter someone you know then                                behave in a friendly manner.                             Consider: The outcome of these interacting units is typically of                               if…then… form: e.g., if you encounter someone you know then                           behave in a friendly manner.           You may have an unnecessary punctuation mark or misplaced punctuation mark.     Example:                             Instead of: Lanyon, R. I.,, & Goodstein, L. D. (1997).                             Consider: Lanyon, R. I., & Goodstein, L. D. (1997).           Use at least one space after most punctuation. However, it is incorrect to insert a space after an opening parenthesis or an opening bracket.     Example:                             Instead of: Rusten, J., Cunningham, I.C. & Knox, A. D. (eds.)          (1993). Theophrastus,Characters; Herodas, Mimes; Cercidas and                  the Choliambic Poets. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University    Press.                           Consider: Rusten, J., Cunningham, I.C. & Knox, A. D. (eds.)            (1993). Theophrastus, Characters; Herodas, Mimes; Cercidas and                    the Choliambic Poets. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University   Press.                     Credit:ivythesis.typepad.com

TIPS ON WRITING

August 29, 2007 Tips on Writing Consider whether one of the two marked words is necessary to the meaning of your sente...

TIPS ON WRITING

August 3, 2007   Tips on Writing    <ul style="margin-top: 0in; margin-bottom: 0in" type="circle"> <li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify"> PUNCTUATION MARKS are given less importance by the writer which is in fact with great importance in writing. Maybe due to carelessly, they forgot to put some punctuation marks in their items. Punctuation marks are used to add emphasis, minimize ambiguity, and aid reader comprehension. They achieve this by separating groups of words, as well as conveying pauses and a feeling for changes in volume and pitch of the written or printed material. </li> </ul> 1.      The use of a comma (,)       It is use to separate words, phrases, or clauses in series.        For example:        Like in the case of Mr. Tom Crossman, a 31 year old white British living in London with her wife Elizabeth, and his 18 month-old daughter, Megan.         2. The use of a question mark (?) It is use to indicate a direct question, even if it is not worded in the normal form of a query.                     Use a question mark at the end of a sentence, which is intended to be a question, but worded as a statement         For example:             And what is his general attitude?   <ul style="margin-top: 0in; margin-bottom: 0in" type="circle"> <li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify"> The use of PRONOUNS to replace a noun to avoid repetition. </li> </ul>                           When we wish to speak of a name several times in succession, it is clumsy and tiresome to repeat the noun.                       This is not to be understood as implying that pronouns were invented because nouns were tiresome, since history shows that pronouns are as old as nouns and verbs. The use of pronouns must have sprung up naturally, from a necessity for short, definite, and representative words.   For example: 1. Tom and Elizabeth have been living in harmony, however, after Tom’s sister Angie lived with them, things began to heat up and Tom and Elizabeth began to argue more often. Instead, write it as: Tom and Elizabeth have been living in harmony, however, after Tom’s sister Angie lived with them things began to heat up and they began to argue more often   2. The second case states that a particular tenant, Mrs. Spears with her 15-year-old daughter in the name of Brenda is indirectly causing noise and nuisance to other tenants in a particular premise. Brenda is engage with her problematical boyfriends, who create disturbance to the Grime town neighborhood. Brenda’s first boyfriend was alleged to be an illegal drug dealer, while the other   had four convictions for joyriding.   Instead, write it as:   The second case states that a particular tenant, Mrs. Spears with her 15-year-old daughter in the name of Brenda is indirectly causing noise and nuisance to other tenants in a particular premise. She is engage with her problematical boyfriends, who create disturbance to the Grime town neighborhood. Her first boyfriend was alleged to be an illegal drug dealer, while the other   had four convictions for joyriding.   <ul style="margin-top: 0in; margin-bottom: 0in" type="circle"> <li class="MsoNormal"> Use of another word or SYNONYMS </li> </ul>               Synonyms occur when two words have the same meaning, or nearly the same, and can be substituted for each other.   For example: The word “second” and “latter”   Her first boyfriend was alleged to be an illegal drug dealer, while the other   had four convictions for joyriding. The second boyfriend would seek to impress Brenda by performing handbrake maneuvers at high speed outside her flat late at night.   Instead, write it as:   Her first boyfriend was alleged to be an illegal drug dealer, while the other   had four convictions for joyriding. The latter would seek to impress Brenda by performing handbrake maneuvers at high speed outside her flat late at night. Credit:ivythesis.typepad.com

TIPS ON WRITING

August 3, 2007 Tips on Writing PUNCTUATION MARKS are given less importance by the writer which is in fact with great i...

TIPS ON WRITING

August 30, 2007     Tips on Writing             Forming plurals of lowercase letters              APOSTROPHES are used to form plurals of letters that appear in lowercase; here the rule appears to be more typographical than grammatical. To form the plural of a lowercase letter, place ‘s after the letter. There is no need for apostrophes indicating a plural on capitalized letters, numbers, and symbols although some still prefer them.     Example:     Three Macintosh G4s= three of the Macintosh model G4 The 1960s= the years in decade from 1960 to 1969                                         Instead of: The Home in your Heart is founded by the                                                Topping sisters, namely Agnes and Matilda who resided in                                       the Wigan Area sometime in the 1920’s                           Consider: The Home in your Heart is founded by the             Topping sisters, namely Agnes and Matilda who resided in     the Wigan Area sometime in the 1920s                             Instead of: In 1850′s, the great age of British railway   building was taking place in India, Argentina and Brazil,     financed entirely by British capital                             Consider: In 1850s, the great age of British railway     building was taking place in India, Argentina and Brazil,     financed entirely by British capital     Credit:ivythesis.typepad.com

TIPS ON WRITING

August 30, 2007 Tips on Writing Forming plurals of lowercase letters APOSTROPHES are used to form pl...

TIPS ON WRITING

August 31, 2007      Tips on Writing               Only one of the marked words is necessary to signal that a noun follows.                 Example:                                         Instead of: These benefits being offered to the people are                                        part of the what the government may be able to offer                                                          according to the economy that they have and how they can                                            seriously provide the needs of the people.                                         Consider: These benefits being offered to the people are                                          part of what the government may be able to offer                                                     according to the economy that they have and how they can                                             seriously provide the needs of the people.           The misconception of the words “aside” and “besides”                   The word “aside” means away from somebody or something or away from the area of main concern while the word “beside” means moreover, as well as and at the side of.       Example:                               Instead of: Beside of medical attention, there are also            provisions for the unemployed people to have a work,    as        well as pensions for honored citizens after some time,            thus becoming more inclined to work even after retirement to         release them from this burden.                                Consider: Aside from medical attention, there are also         provisions for unemployed people to have a work, as           well     as pensions for honored citizens after some time, thus      becoming more inclined to work even after retirement to         release them from this burden.           After certain auxiliary verbs such as “ may” or “ can”, use the base form of the verb.                 Example:                                         Instead of: This may be primarily be the case considering                                         the domination of the Labour Party on the ratification of                                        social policies in the state.                                         Consider: This may be primarily being the case                                                          considering the domination of the Labour Party on the                                               ratification of social policies in the state.         Credit:ivythesis.typepad.com

TIPS ON WRITING

August 31, 2007 Tips on Writing Only one of the marked words is necessary to signal that a noun follows. ...

Standards in Essay Writing

Standards in Essay Writing

Literature Review Outline

Literature Review Outline I. Introduction             Contains link with the introduction and summary of the contents of the succeeding discussions II. Concepts and Theories             A. What is strategic audit?             B. What are the uses of strategic audit?             C. What are the components of strategic audit?                         1. Resource Audit                         2. Value Chain Analysis                         3. Core Competence Analysis                         4. Performance Analysis                         5. Portfolio Analysis                         6. SWOT Analysis III. Empirical Application A.    How do actual business firms perform or use strategic audit? B.     How has strategic audit affected the operations and performance of actual business firms? C.     What issues or challenges emerge in the conduct of strategic audit? D.    What are the best practices in the use of strategic audit? IV. Synthesis                                                         Literature Review Strategy                               The term “strategy” origins from the Greek word “strategia –   the art of war .According to Webster’s New world dictionary “Strategy is the skill in   managing or planning”.                                 There are vast amounts of literature on what the “strategy “really means are:   Coulter (2002:7) define that the strategy is a series of goal-directed decisions and   actions in terms of organisation’s skills and resources and the opportunities and   threats from it’s environment.     “Strategies are means to ends, and these ends concern the purpose and objectives of   the organisation. They are the things that businesses do, the paths they follow, and the   decisions they take, in order to reach certain points and level of success.” (Thompson,   2001:7)     Johnson, G & Scholes, K, (1993) describe that the strategy is the direction and scope   of  an organisation over the long term which create the competitive advantage for the   organisation in the accordance with it’s resources, environmental circumstances so   that it can fulfil the stakeholder expectations and the needs of the market.     “Strategy is the primary means of reaching the focal objective. The focal objective is   whatever objective is in mind at the moment. Strictly speaking, it is literally   meaningless to talk about strategy without having an objective in mind. Viewed in the   context strategy becomes an integral part of the ends-means hierarchy” (Thorelli,   H.B, 1977)     Chandler ( 1962) also explain that the strategy is the activities of the enterprise   concerned with long-term goals and objectives to formulate , to take the action ,to   allocate the resources that necessary for carrying out that goals.         Strategic Audit                                 “The strategic audit is a review of a company’s situation by a   person trained in business planning and strategic thinking,” (lasher, 1999)    Thompson, (2001) describes that the strategic audit is a type of management audit   along with a corporation-wide perspective and the purpose is to make a   comprehensive assessment of a corporation’s strategic situation.                                      Gordon (2002) claims that the strategic audits have unpredictable   results although there are so many definitions set out for that. He also identifies the   questions to cover a framework of the strategic audit and all these questions will also   fully cover the framework of this research.   <ul style="margin-top: 0in; margin-bottom: 0in" type="disc"> <li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify"> What business are we in? </li> <li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify"> What is our current strategy? </li> <li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify"> What forces are shaping competition? </li> <li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify"> Where is competitive advantage? </li> <li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify"> What is our distinctive competence? </li> <li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify"> What of priorities, timing and resources? </li> <li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify"> How do we best for the future? </li> <li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify"> What provisions exist for implementation? </li> </ul>                                      The business should be enough cabale for having a good resources   and competency , to understand the condition .In strategic audit all the business strategries are evaluated and adjustments are made if nesseary . “ A Strategic Audit takes   a detailed look at the prevailing strategries in key areas of the organization “ ( Detailed   Strategic Audit 2007 ). By conducting a strategic audit , it helps not only to spot out the   weakness of the business strategy and planning process but also giving an ideas to   establish the structured , systematic and the most suitable strategic planning approach of   it .         6. SWOT Analysis                                    Pearce and Robinson (2002; 202) state that a “SWOT analysis is a   widely used technique through which managers create a quick overview of a   company’s strategic situation.”  It provides an overview of the internal   (organisational) factors (i.e., strengths and weaknesses of the organisation) and   external (industry) factors (i.e., opportunities and threats of its environment).                                                                     Pearce and Robinson (2002) suggest that this approach can be   seen as one of four distinct areas by matching between a firm’s internal factors and   external factors.                       Environmental Scan           / \            Internal Analysis       External Analysis / \                  / \ Strengths   Weaknesses       Opportunities   Threats | SWOT Matrix     Fig 1: SWOT Analysis Framework                                                                                                      To delevop a SWOT profile a matrix is constructed . This matrix is   known as TWOS matrix and it is profounded by Heinz Weihrich . (SWOT Analysis 1999   -2007 )                                        Strengths Weaknesses Opportunities     S-O   W-O Threats     S-T   W-T   Fig 2: SWOT / TOWS  Matrix     S-O Strategy which is most desirable and advantageous strategy it seeks to increase the   firm’s strength to exploit the best opportunity .   W-O Strategy aims at minimizing the weakness to pursue opportunites .   S-T Strategy attempts to use the organization strengths to deal with the environmental   threats .   W-T Strategy established a defensive plan to overcome the weakness and threats .                                       While  SWOT analysis are beneficial , there are also limitations   of it.Recklies(2001) back this by stating that the main weaknesses of the SWOT   model results from the historic context in which it was developed. This idea is claim   back by Haberbeg et al (2001:95) who explain “ it was conceived in simpler times and   does not cope well with some of the subtler aspects of modern strategic theory.”                                                                         Grant(1995) further argue that there are variable factors totally   depend on the SWOT Analysis process, such as, capacity of people to analyse   strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats objectively or the strategic   perceptions of the organisation which was influenced by hierarchical position,   language and culture although SWOT can be ambiguous in its own assumption.                                               References     Chandler (1962) Strategy and Structure, MIT press, Cambridge, cited by Hindle, T (1994) Field guide to Strategy, the economist Books Limited, Boston.   Coutler.M, (2002) Strategic Management in action,2nd Edition, Prentice Hall   Fredrickson, J (ed.) (1991), Perspectives on Strategic Management, Harper  Business, New York.   Grant.R.M,(1995)Contemporary  Strategy Analysis: Concepts, Techniques,  Application. 2nd Edition Blackwell   Guilford, J.P. and B. Fruchter (1973). Fundamental Statistics in Psychology and Education, 5th Edition. New York: Mc Graw-Hill.   Haberbeg A, Rieple A.(2001) The Strategic Management of Organisations, Prentice Hall, London    Johnson, G. and Scholes, K., (1993) Exploring Corporate Strategy – Text and      Cases, Prentice-Hall, London.   Recklies,D (2001) , Beyond Porter – A Critique of the Critique of Porter, Management Models, Management Portal.     Thompson, J.L (2001) Understanding corporate Strategy, Thompson learning, London    Thorelli, H.B., Strategy + Structure = Performance: The Strategic Planning Imperative, Indiana University Press, Bloomington, 1977.   Webster’s New World Dictionary, CD-ROM edition, Merrion-Webster, Springfield, MA, 1992.         Credit:ivythesis.typepad.com

Literature Review Outline

Literature Review Outline I. Introduction Contains link with the introduction and summary of the contents of the succeeding d...

Research Proposal Guidelines

MBL3 MBLREP-P 2007   ADDITIONAL GUIDELINES FOR THE PROPOSAL   These guidelines have been prepared to help you with the first phase of your research project, the writing of the research proposal. Please also refer to paragraph 3 in the Guidelines for the MBL 3 Research report on the EDS. Remember you are not allowed to collect any data until your research proposal has been accepted.   The most important aspect of conducting valid and reliable research is the literature review.  A thorough literature review will provide you the following:   ·         An understanding of the extant knowledge in the field (i.e. What is the state of knowledge about the topic?) ·         Provide information on how others have studied the topic and the research methods employed as well as their results. (What methodology has been used in previously published work on your topic?)  How does it inform or suggest the best way for me to conduct my study?  How can I improve on the methodology typically utilised when studying this topic?  What limitations did other researchers indicate about their methodology? ·         A theory for your topic.  Your work must not be a theoretical but grounded in appropriate theory. ·         It will become a chapter in your final research report to be submitted in November 2006.   As a consequence, you are urged to give sufficient time and energy to doing a solid, comprehensive literature review.     What should you do to reach this goal?   1.            You must do a proper search using UNISA electronic databases.  If you do not know how to use the electronic databases, then you must become proficient.  There are several and usually one can find great information.  THE LIBRARIANS ARE NOT TO BE ASKED TO DO SEARCHES FOR YOU!  They can assist you if you run into difficulties finding something or they can point you in the right direction or answer a query.  BUT IT IS YOUR RESPONSIBILITY TO SEARCH!  The databases provide the most current information at your fingertips using a time that is suitable for you.  UNISA has gone to considerable effort to have a fine selection of electronic resources.  The challenge will be searching on the proper topics.  For instance, if your topic is change—you might search change management, managing change, leading change, challenges of leading change. So be expansive and thorough as well as current in your initial search.  Once you see the abstract of the article, you can decide what to download if full-text is available.  If not and you really want that article, you will have to request it via the library. 2.            For a research report of the calibre we are expecting, you must search EMPIRICAL, REPUTABLE journals.  By this I mean journals that publish research as well as conceptual pieces written for an academic audience.  In the field of management, leadership, industrial psychology, and organisation behaviour:  The following journals (examples only) are considered most appropriate amongst others:   Academy of Management Journal Academy of Management Review Journal of Management Human Resource Management Leadership Quarterly Human Relations South African Journal of Business Management SA Journal of Industrial Psychology Southern Africa Business Review South African Journal of Labour Relations Administrative Science Quarterly Journal of Applied Psychology Journal of Social Psychology British Journal of Management Asia Pacific Journal of Management Group and Organization Studies Journal of Personality and Social Psychology Leadership & Organization Development Journal   These are more “practitioner oriented” and may be helpful but should not constitute your major references:   Harvard Business Review Academy of Management Executive Human Resource Management Organizational Dynamics Personnel Personnel Journal Training and Development Business Horizons   Books   Books are fine if they represent work from “seminal” authors.   Internet   Remember anyone can establish himself or herself as an authority on the Internet.  Internet sources are good but only from authoritative people.  So if you get a source from the Internet, you need to cross check the “authority” on the electronic databases to see if they are reputable authors.   A useful way to properly collate the information from your literature review of empirical journal articles is to work with a table that contains the following:   1.                            Date of article 2.                            Authors 3.                            Title of article (full names) 4.                            Volume and page numbers 5.                            Name of Journal 6.                            Major Research Question and/or Hypothesis 7.                            Methodology   (Research design (e.g. cross-sectional, laboratory, interviews, case study, surveys, ethnographic) Sample, Sample size, instruments used to measure constructs,  data collection procedures, variables tested, data analysis method) 8.                             Key Results (What did they find in respect to their hypothesis or hypotheses?) 9.                            Limitations of the study 10.                         Their suggestions for future research 11.                         Your comments (what are the ramifications of this research for my study.  What can I conclude about the existing state of knowledge in reference to my topic or research question?   You need a different framework reviewing  “conceptual articles.”   1.                            Date 2.                            Author 3.                            Title 4.                            Journal Publication details 5.                            Major thesis 6.                            Theory proposed and major elements thereof 7.                            Propositions offered 8.                            Limitations 9.                            What are the implications of the theory for my research question   Once you have done this kind of analysis for the literature you have collected, then you need to sit down and write it up in coherent, integrated fashion.  Remember the literature review is not a regurgitation of the literature but should demonstrate you can make sense of the literature you have read and draw conclusions from it! The literature review must end with a summary that follows logically into the next part of your research proposal which is your research question and hypothesis.  The literature review is the foundation for your work and it substantiates why your study makes sense and why your study will add significant value to the extant literature.   Here is a literature review excerpt from a recently published journal article:   CORRELATES OF CHARISMATIC LEADER BEHAVIOR IN MILITARY UNITS: SUBORDINATES’ ATTITUDES, UNIT CHARACTERISTICS, AND SUPERIORS’ APPRAISALS OF LEADER PERFORMANCE, By: Shamir, Boas, Zakay, Eliav, Academy of Management Journal, 00014273, Aug 98, Vol. 41, Issue 4   Charismatic Behaviors and Their Individual-Level Correlates   In the self-concept-based motivational theory of charismatic leadership, Shamir, House, and Arthur (1993) argue that charismatic leadership has its effects by strongly engaging followers’ self-concepts in the interest of the mission articulated by a leader. The theory suggests that charismatic leaders increase the intrinsic valence of efforts and goals by linking them to valued aspects of followers’ self-concepts. Specifically, according to the theory, charismatic leaders, by their verbal and symbolic behavior, raise the salience of certain values and collective identities in followers’ self-concepts and articulate the goals and the required efforts in terms of those values and identities. Through such actions, charismatic leaders make efforts and goals more meaningful for followers and harness the motivational forces of self-expression, self-consistency, self-esteem, and self-worth.   The theory highlights leader behaviors that raise the salience of certain values and identities in followers’ self-concepts and frame a group’s mission and followers’ roles in terms of those values and identities. These behaviors include such acts as interpreting the present and the past in terms of the group’s values and identity, articulating an ideological mission, amplifying values and identities by using labels, slogans, and metaphors, linking the amplified values and identities to expected follower behaviors, and emphasizing the group’s or organization’s uniqueness and importance.   In addition to these behaviors, which rely mainly on a leader’s verbal and written communication and on symbolic devices such as rituals and ceremonies, the leader’s personal behavior is also emphasized by the theory. This category of behaviors includes such acts as displaying self-confidence, displaying high involvement in the task, engaging in self-sacrifice to show commitment to the mission, demonstrating social and physical courage, and setting a personal example in overall lifestyle. By demonstrating determination, optimism, and self-confidence, a leader empowers followers in the sense of inspiring confidence and raising self-efficacy and collective efficacy (House & Shamir, 1993). Furthermore, the leader’s setting a personal example increases identification with and admiration for him or her. When followers admire and identify with a leader, they are more likely to emulate the leader’s beliefs and values (Yukl, 1994).   The charismatic behaviors highlighted by the theory can be clustered into three related, yet separate, categories: (1) Emphasizing ideology comprises behaviors that emphasize collective values and ideologies and link a mission, its goals, and expected behaviors to those values and ideologies. (2) Emphasizing collective identity comprises behaviors that emphasize the collective identity of a group, organization, or movement and link a mission, its goals, and expected behaviors to this identity. (3) Displaying exemplary behaviors refers to a leader’s displaying personal commitment to the values, identities, and goals he or she stands for and promotes. According to the theory, these behaviors link followers’ self-concepts to the leader, the group’s task, and the group or organization and activate the motivational mechanisms of self-expression, self-consistency, and self-enhancement.   The hypothesized effects of the activated motivational mechanisms can also be grouped into three categories, all of which occur primarily at the individual level: (1) effects on followers’ relationships with a leader, namely, follower identification with the leader and trust in the leader, (2) effects on followers’ relationships with their task or role, namely, increased efficacy perceptions, intrinsic motivation, and willingness to sacrifice themselves to perform the task, and (3) effects on followers’ relationship with the collectivity (a group or organization), namely, increased identification with the group and attachment to it.[1] The first two aspects have been adequately covered by the charismatic leadership literature and are captured by our first three hypotheses, which stem directly from the Shamir et al. (1993) theory:   Hypothesis 1. A leader’s emphasizing ideology will be positively associated with subordinate identification with and trust in the leader, self-efficacy, motivation, and willingness to sacrifice.   Hypothesis 2. A leader’s emphasizing collective identity will be positively associated with subordinate identification with and trust in the leader, self-efficacy, motivation, and willingness to sacrifice.   Hypothesis 3. A leader’s displaying exemplary behavior will be positively associated with subordinate identification with and trust in the leader, self-efficacy, motivation, and willingness to sacrifice.   The third category of effects on individual subordinates–effects on subordinates’ relationships with their unit–has been neglected in research on charismatic leadership. In essence, these effects reflect increased social identification and attachment to a unit. Social identification involves definition of the self in terms of a group or a collective (Ashforth & Mael, 1989). People who identify with a unit or organization take pride in being part of it and regard membership as one of their most important social identities. High social identification may be associated with a collectivistic orientation in the sense that the unit member is willing to contribute to the unit even in the absence of personal benefits, place the needs of the unit above individual needs, and sacrifice self-interest for the sake of the unit (Shamir, 1990). Naturally, social identification will be reflected in attachment to the unit, or the desire to continue membership in it.   A charismatic leader can increase social identification by emphasizing the collective identity of a unit and distinguishing it from other units. This can be achieved by the skillful use of slogans and symbols (e.g., flags, emblems, uniforms), rituals (e.g., singing the organizational song), and ceremonies. In addition, a charismatic leader may raise the salience of the collective identity in followers’ self-concepts by emphasizing ideology and shared values, both directly and indirectly, through references to the history of the unit or organization and to the heroic deeds and symbolic actions of founders, former leaders, and former members (Shamir, Arthur, & House, 1994). Since a leader is often seen as a representative character who embodies a unit’s identity and values, his or her displaying exemplary behavior may increase not only identification with the leader, but also identification with the unit. Therefore:   Hypothesis 4. A leader’s emphasizing ideology will be positively associated with subordinates’ identification with a unit and attachment to the unit.   Hypothesis 5. A leader’s emphasizing collective identity will be positively associated with subordinates’ identification with a unit and attachment to the unit.   Hypothesis 6. A leader’s displaying exemplary behavior will be positively associated with subordinates’ identification with a unit and attachment to the unit.   Unit-Level Correlates of Charismatic Leader Behavior   The consideration of unit-level effects in research on charismatic leadership in organizations has been largely atheoretical. Lowe, Kroeck, and Sivasubramanian (1996) conducted a meta-analytic review of findings on the relationships between transformational leadership, including charisma, and leader effectiveness in 39 published and unpublished studies that employed the Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (MLQ; Bass & Avolio, 1990) to measure transformational leadership. They reported that the correlations between leader charisma and subordinate ratings of effectiveness ranged between .36 and .91, with a mean corrected correlation of .81, and the correlations between leader charisma and organizational measures of effectiveness (either direct measures of performance or performance evaluations) ranged between .10 and .83, with a mean corrected correlation of .35. Another meta-analytic review (Fuller, Patterson, Hester, & Stringer, 1996) reported a mean corrected correlation of .48 between charisma and subjective measures of performance and a mean corrected correlation of .34 between charisma and objective measures of performance. Some recent studies have even found relationships between leaders’ charisma and the financial performance of their units (Agle, 1994; Howell & Avolio, 1993, Waldman & Ramirez, 1992).   However, most of these studies not only relied on a measure of charisma that confounded leader behaviors with their effects on subordinates, but also either focused on the relationships between leaders’ charisma and end result variables or aggregated individual-level effects and related them to charismatic leadership without a clear theoretical and empirical justification for such aggregation. Thus, these studies have only limited explanatory power (House, 1995: 440). Recent attempts to study the relationships between transformational or charismatic leader behavior and theoretically meaningful group-level outcomes (Sosik, Avolio, & Kahai, 1997) have been so far limited to experimental settings and artificial short-term groups.   A related gap exists at the theoretical level. Although all charismatic theories predict positive relationships between charismatic leadership and organizational outcomes, none of them contain explicit theoretical arguments linking leader behaviors and outcomes at the group or organizational level. Prevailing theories of charismatic leadership focus almost exclusively on dyadic relationships between leaders and followers or subordinates rather than on relationships between leaders and groups of subordinates. Whether they are based on psychoanalytic theory (Lindholm, 1990), attribution theory (Conger & Kanungo, 1987), motive arousal theory (House et al., 1991), or self-concept theory (Shamir et al., 1993), neocharismatic theories focus on social-psychological mechanisms at the individual and interpersonal level. The phenomenon is conceived of as a relationship between leader and follower and explained in terms of an interaction between a leader who exhibits certain characteristics and behaviors and followers with certain needs, values, or propensities.   In the only recent attempt to extend charismatic theory to the group level, Klein and House (1995) conceived of the group as a constellation of dyadic relationships. In their extension, groups and organizations varied along a single dimension: the homogeneity or heterogeneity of group members’ charismatic relationships with their leaders. This is a rather limited conception of group-level charismatic leadership. Groups or units are much more than the sum of members’ dyadic relationships with the leaders, and therefore, the charismatic phenomenon as applied to units cannot be captured by the constellation of the charismatic relationships between leaders and individual unit members. For a unit-level theory of charismatic leadership, the unit as an entity has to be brought into the theoretical picture. Thus, a charismatic leader may affect unit culture, identity, norms, and potency (Guzzo et al., 1993) in ways that extend beyond his or her accumulated dyadic relationships with individual members of a unit. A unit-level theory of charismatic leadership requires specification of charismatic effects not only in terms of subordinates’ trust, identification, and obedience, but also in terms of unit processes and characteristics.   Special importance is attached to leaders’ impacts on unit-level outcomes in the military. The belief that the combat performance of military units depends on their morale, cohesion, and esprit de corps was expressed by Xenophon as early as 400 B.C. This belief received support from studies conducted during and after World War II (Shils & Janowitz, 1948; Stouffer et al., 1949) and from others conducted during the Korean or Vietnam Wars [Manning & Ingraham, 1987; Marshall, 1967). Units marked by high levels of cohesion, esprit, and morale have also performed better in Israeli wars (Gal, 1986; Solomon, Mikulinicer, & Hobfill, 1986). More recent studies of U.S. Army units in peacetime have indicated that the highest standards of performance are closely associated with horizontal and vertical cohesion and with collective commitment to unit values and goals. The mission philosophy of the U.S. Army also reflects the belief that “well-trained, cohesive units under good leadership sustain far higher average effectiveness” (Bartone & Kirkland, 1991: 394).   In the present article, we propose certain relationships between charismatic leader behaviors and unit characteristics and report unit-level tests of those propositions. Specifically, we suggest that charismatic behaviors that emphasize the collective identity of a unit and the ideological and value-laden nature of its goals and tasks result in stronger relationships between members and their unit and hence, in increased unit cohesiveness. We further suggest that in emphasizing the uniqueness of a unit and its values, a charismatic leader contributes to the creation of a distinctive and strong unit culture. High cohesiveness and a strong unit culture will be reflected in strong normative control of the behavior of unit members and hence, in a high level of unit discipline. In addition, we propose that the charismatic leader empowers the unit as a unit in a way that goes beyond his or her effect on the self-efficacy perceptions of individual members. Therefore, we expect unit potency to be raised by a leader who emphasizes the importance and uniqueness of the unit, expresses confidence in it, and relates its tasks to ideological justifications. The term “unit potency” refers to members’ shared belief that their unit can be effective (Guzzo et al., 1993).   Charismatic leaders are also expected to represent group identity and values in their personal behavior. A leader’s verbal and nonverbal behaviors actively foster shared values and norms and therefore, the development of group cohesiveness and culture (Schein, 1985). Strong organizational or group cultures are often built around the persona of a charismatic leader (e.g., Kunda, 1992). In military units, disciplinary norms are expected to be among the norms demonstrated by the personal behavior of the leaders. In addition, since leadership is one of the bases on which members develop a sense of unit potency (Guzzo et al., 1993), a leader’s self-confidence and dedication to a unit’s task, as expressed in his or her personal behavior, are likely to affect perceptions of unit potency.   These arguments gave rise to the following hypotheses:   Hypothesis 7. The more a leader engages in behaviors that emphasize a unit’s collective identity, the higher the levels of unit cohesiveness, culture, discipline, and potency.   Hypothesis 8. The more a leader engages in behaviors that emphasize shared ideology, the higher the levels of unit cohesiveness, culture, discipline, and potency.   Hypothesis 9. The more a leader displays exemplary behavior, the higher the levels of unit cohesiveness, culture, discipline, and potency. Charismatic Leader Behavior, Unit Characteristics, and Superiors’ Appraisals of Leader Performance   In view of the reported relationships between the cohesiveness, discipline, and potency of units and their levels of peacetime and combat performance, it is legitimate to regard these unit characteristics as criteria of leader effectiveness. Another criterion of leader effectiveness often used in leadership studies is the judgment of a leader’s superior (Tsui, 1994). There is some evidence that leaders who are perceived by their subordinates and colleagues as charismatic receive higher performance evaluations from their superiors (Hater & Bass, 1988; Waldman, Bass, & Einstein, 1987; Yammarino & Bass, 1990). Such findings are not trivial, since both charisma and effectiveness are at least to some extent in the eyes of the beholder, and subordinates, colleagues, and superiors have different interests and different points of view (Tsui, 1994). A leader who is perceived to be charismatic by subordinates and colleagues should not necessarily receive higher evaluations from superiors. Therefore, the meaning of the discovered relationships between leaders’ charisma and performance evaluations by superiors requires further elaboration and clarification.   It is possible, as the literature on charismatic leadership implies, that such leadership produces better unit processes and properties, which in turn lead to superiors’ higher performance evaluations. It is also possible, however, that the discovered associations between leader charisma and superiors’ evaluations reflect agreement between the attributions of both charisma and effectiveness made by two different sources, subordinates and superiors. Such agreement could stem either from the different sources observing the same leader characteristics and behaviors and making similar attributions independently, or from social informational processes that produce a shared construction of reality for the different sources.   In the present study, we attempted’ to separate and explore both possibilities. We suggest that superiors observe both a leader’s behaviors and the effects of these behaviors on the leader’s unit. Thus, performance evaluations by superiors are expected to be based on both the leader’s manifestation of charismatic behaviors and on characteristics of the leader’s unit, namely culture, cohesiveness, discipline, and potency, which presumably attest to the leader’s impact on the unit.   The following hypotheses resulted from this line of reasoning:   Hypothesis 10. The more a leader engages in the charismatic behaviors of emphasizing ideology, emphasizing collective identity, an d displaying exemplary behavior, the higher the performance appraisal of the leader by his or her superior.   Hypothesis 11. Unit characteristics (cohesiveness, culture, discipline, and potency) will mediate the relationships between a leader’s charismatic behaviors and the performance appraisal of the leader by the superior. Level of Theory and Level of Analysis: A Clarification   There is growing interest in level-of-analysis issues in the field of leadership studies, as evidenced, for instance, by two 1995 special issues of the Leadership Quarterly (volume 6, numbers 2 and 3; cf. Yammarino, 1995). A growing number of leadership scholars recognize “the absolute necessity of having researchers state the level of analysis at which they believe their hypothesized phenomena hold and of testing obtained data for alignment with those expectations” (Schriesheim, Cogliser, & Neider, 1995: 135; emphasis in original). Unfortunately, the dominant approach to this issue has been for authors to claim potential validity for their leadership theories at several levels of analysis and to treat the appropriate level of analysis as an empirical question. Consequently, the main issue has become the best way to determine the level of analysis represented by the data in a given study. Not only has this approach characterized studies of leadership, but also, as Klein, Dansereau, and Hall noted, “The vast majority of the articles, chapters, and books on levels-of-analysis issues in organizational research focus primarily on statistical questions (1994: 196).   In contrast with current research practices, and in agreement with Klein and colleagues (1994) and Schriesheim and coauthors (1995), we take the position that the level-of-analysis issue is first and foremost a theoretical issue. Some constructs may be meaningful at more than one level. However, there is no justification for treating any construct as potentially useful at all levels and for letting statistical results alone decide the appropriate level of analysis. Thus, concepts like culture and cohesiveness (Ilgen, Major, Hollenbeck, & Sego, 1993) are meaningless at the individual level. Therefore, the theoretical level of analysis should be specified a priori: “Unless research is clearly exploratory, specification and explication of the level of theory should precede and guide data collection and analysis” (Klein et al., 1994: 218). When measurement is at the individual level but a theoretical construct is at a higher level of analysis, the data should be tested to see whether there is justification for aggregating the data to the higher level.   In this study, we conceptualized leader behavior as a unit-level construct. Some authors (e.g., Yammarino, 1995) have called such a conceptualization the average leadership style (ALS) approach. This term is misleading, because it implies that a researcher averages a leader’s behaviors toward different individuals. In contrast, most of the charismatic leader behaviors that are of concern here are not directed at individual subordinates or followers. Rather, they are ambient behaviors that are either directed at the unit as a whole (for instance, emphasizing the collective identity) or at no one in particular (for instance, leader’s self-sacrifice). Individual followers may perceive these behaviors differently and react to them differently, but the behaviors themselves are assumed to be homogenous with respect to an entire unit. Furthermore, individual or dyadic approaches to the measurement of charisma tend to confound subordinates’ perceptions of a leader’s behavior with their reactions to the leader. In contrast, one of the purposes of the present study was to separate subordinates’ reactions from leader behaviors, because only then can hypotheses about the relationships between leader behavior and subordinate reactions be tested. Therefore, we focused in this study on the common aspects of leader behavior and attempted to measure leader behaviors at the unit level.   Subordinate level of trust in and identification with a leader, level of motivation, willingness to sacrifice for a mission and a unit, self-efficacy, and identification with and attachment to the unit are conceptualized here as individual responses to a leader. Therefore, Hypotheses I to 6, which concern the relationships between these responses and leader behavior, are cross-level hypotheses. They relate individual-level variables to contextual or global variables at the unit level. In testing hypotheses of this nature, researchers should assign all individuals in the same unit the same global score for any global variable (Rousseau, 1985: 31) and should conduct the analysis at the individual level. Hypotheses 7 to 11 are unit-level predictions. They concern the relationships between leader behavior and unit characteristics. Therefore, they were tested at the unit level. (Strictly speaking, Hypothesis 10 concerns the relationship between a leader’s behavior and the performance appraisal of the leader, and it is therefore at the individual leader level of theory. In the context of this study, this level is equivalent to the unit level of analysis.)   Your literature review will probably be longer since this one had to be condensed to fit into a journal article.  But it should give you a flavor of how the literature review is written and pay attention to how the authors integrate and build their theory.  (Don’t worry.  You probably will not have eleven hypotheses).   Drafting the Proposal   A second suggestion that will be helpful.  Make sure you read the guidelines on the EDS for writing your proposal.  Then from the guideline do a detailed Table of Contents for your proposal.  Then you can work through the elements of each section.  A proposal is not written in one sitting but is an iterative process.  Once you have drafted Chapters 1,  2 and 3 and feel happy with it, go on to Chapter 4 the methodology.  This is probably where you may want to have a discussion with your study leader. Of course study leaders prefer to get a draft of the entire proposal because their feedback will then be more comprehensive and integrated.   Ethics of Research   1.                      Do not plagiarise.  It is that simple! What it means is being a good researcher and being careful about your citations.  If you use someone’s words exactly you must cite the page numbers.  This should be minimised and rather paraphrase and give the author (s) credit (Nkomo, 1999).  If the idea is not originally yours, then you must properly cite the owner! 2.                      When you get to the sampling phase, you must make sure your respect the dignity of your research subjects.  We can talk more about that as it relative to your methodology.   Formatting   Don’t lose points for your work by being sloppy with referencing and formatting.  The EDS has provided guidelines.               Credit:ivythesis.typepad.com

Research Proposal Guidelines

MBL3 MBLREP-P 2007 ADDITIONAL GUIDELINES FOR THE PROPOSAL These guidelines have been prepared to help you with the first phase of...