Research Topics: How To Write A Dissertation

Dissertation

An Investigation for The development of e business for the Chinese garment company               Master Dissertation Proposal             Student ID:    Name    :  February 2007       TABLE OF CONTENTS   1. Introduction…………………………………………………….…….. .2 2. Aim……………………………………………………………….……..3 3. Objectives……………………………………………………….………3 4. Literature Review……………………………………………………….3 5. Deliverables………………………………………..………….…….….3 6. .Methodology………………………………………………..…………..3   6.1 Personal Observation…………………………………………..…3   6.2 Quantitative Survey………………………………………………3 6.2.1 Population………………………………………………….3 6.2.2 Data Collection…………………………………………….4 6.2.3 Data Measurement…………………………….….……….5 6.2.4 Data Analysis……………………………………..………5   6.3 Exploratory Interview……………………………………. ….…5 6.3.1 Data Analysis………………………………………………………………..…5 7. Limitation……………………………………….…………………..…5 8. Timetable………………………………………………….……….…..6 9. Research Resource…………………………………………………….7 10. References………………………………………….…..……………8.9   u  Introduction   Today, with the development of networks based on internet technology, the quickly updated information impacts on consumer’s opinion of the real world, and operating situation in industry and commerce as well as human life style. In such a huge inter-combination background with internet contacting and exuberance resource that is supported by systemic information technology, so e-commerce emerged with time requiring.    E-commerce，namely operating commercial activity online, has lots of primary functions such as advertisement, order, payment, customer service ,goods submit, distribution, market research and analyses, finance assess and production scheduling. The enterprise send their products’ information to personnel and clients by using intranet and internet, or contact the co-partners directly online, all the operations about that belong to the e-commerce, which has a very important feature on transmission and transact business information by utilizing the network technology, wherefore someone defines: e-commerce equals to Web plus IT. There is a widely concept about e-commerce that is kind of ongoing commercial activity online and to make Electronic Data Transmission as well. ‘A, Internet Merchant bank Account B, Web hosting C, Provider of Online Transaction D, Shopping Cart Software’（ 2002）   u  Aims   The main purpose of this research is to help Chinese garment companies realize the importance of online business in their business. u  Objectives   After clarifying the aim of the research, through the purpose statement, the objectives should be identified. The objectives were derived from the above aim and the whole research will be developed according to these objectives. They are including: -Do some research on e-commerce status of Chinese garment company -Analysis how E-commerce can help Chinese garment company.   u  Literature Review E-commerce and information system strategy.   u  Methodology   The ideal methodology of this research is supposed to involve personal observation, quantitative survey and qualitative research. . Deliverables Results of questionnaire and interview. (includes analysis of these results) May be develop online business system for Chinese garment company. n   Personal Observation First of all, personal observation, as opposed to observations taken by mechanical means, can be used whenever it is possible to collect data by watching what consumers do in the process of purchasing goods or services, by checking the quality of services provided by retail and service outlets, or by noting the availability, quantity and prices of branded goods on shelves in shops or in the home (1999). Through the observation, the online shopping behaviours of the garment consumers are better watched, such as when they like to shop, what they like to shop.   n   Quantitative Survey Quantitative survey would be conducted for this research. It is easier and clearer to get the overall result through the quantitative survey, because the general perception could be showed through percentage by statistics calculation. Statistics analysis like factor analysis and cluster analysis are then used to identify groups or categories of people who tend to be specific to particular classes of online shopping ( 1999).   6.2.1 Population The population size of this research is including all the Chinese people who have over 16 yeas old. 6.2.2 Data Collection Minimum 150 questionnaires would be delivered by post, face-to-face, and email to this group of consumers, mainly they are students in some high schools, colleges and universities to conduct their demographic characteristics, social status, shopping habits, and brand repeated purchases.     6.2.3 Data measurement Since the research is about the brand loyalty, this proposed research is going to use both direct measurement and indirect measurement.  Particularly, according to Kent, repeat purchase is taken as an indicator of brand loyalty (2001), and indirect measurement should be more suitable than any other measurement in terms of brand loyalty.   6.2.4 Data Analysis All the data which is collected by questionnaire survey will be entered for statistical analysis. Both unvaried analysis and divaricated analysis will be used at the same time. First of all, the results would be analysed by descriptive statistics, since it is more direct to display all the variables. And then the cross-tabulation is used. It is suggested by Kent that to display the relationship between two non-metric variables a divaricated cross-tabulation is required (1999). A cross-tabulation presents the frequencies of two variables the values of which are interlaced ( 1999).   n   Exploratory Interviews 6-8 interviewees might be selected from the previous quantitative research, intend to go in-depth to know people’s idea, attitude to the online shopping/e business. According to (1999), Qualitative research will tend to be used fro exploratory purposes where the researcher needs to design questionnaires in which the consumer perspective on or images of products and brands need to be tested and are not known in advance, or where the words, phrases or categorizations of markets or products need to be checked before proceeding to quantitative research.   6.3.1 Data Analysis To conduct the e business’s attitude and opinions , the reason for why people are  loyal to online shoppping, the elements involved to make them choose particular ways, the mechanical analysis would be used, as mechanical analysis has the aim of sorting and classifying what people said into categories with a view to bringing together comments that are on the same topic ( 1999).    u  Limitation   To begin with, although this research has been designed an idea methodology which includes store observation, questionnaire survey, and exploratory interviews so that good results can be got, there are only three months for the whole research and time is assumed to be a constraint element to finish those three methodologies which are supposed to conduct by only one person but not group. The research would start at the begging of June and finish by the end of August. Time is a very limited for this 15,000 words piece of research. Meanwhile, because of the limitation of time, one of the methodologies might be canceled so that the author could get enough time to analyse the data and construct a good piece of research.   Then, this research is written by a non-native speaker; language would be a struggling factor and it might happen sometimes that an appropriate word cannot be found.   Also, the sample would be chosen from some colleges or universities which the author has the access to do the survey. It means that most of the sample would be young adults who are age from 16 to 22, and most of them are from students group. It means that the perception of the non-students groups are not condcucted and researched, and some valuable information from other age group such as from 12 to 15 would be lost.   u  Timetable   To undertake the methodologies and analyze the data of the research at the right time is the key to the success of a good research and therefore a timetable is needed before the research goes on. Step Ⅰ- Literature Review <ul style="margin-top: 0in; margin-bottom: 0in" type="disc"> <li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 22.0pt"> Early April, Literature review should be started in order to conduct the literature on the demographic area, consumer behavior, marketing research, online shopping measurement, and fashion clothing area. </li> </ul>   Step Ⅱ- Methodology <ul style="margin-top: 0in; margin-bottom: 0in" type="disc"> <li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 22.0pt"> April11th, Stores observation. </li> <li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 22.0pt"> April16th Design the quantitative questionnaires. </li> <li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 22.0pt"> April 20th dispatch the questionnaires </li> <li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 22.0pt"> May 1st, enter questionnaires data into e besiness. </li> <li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 22.0pt"> May5th, choose the sample for exploratory interviews. </li> <li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 22.0pt"> May6th, sending the cover letter to the potential interviewees. </li> <li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 22.0pt"> May 8th, start the exploratory interviews </li> <li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 22.0pt"> May 20th, finish the exploratory interviews. </li> </ul>   Step Ⅲ – Data Analysis <ul style="margin-top: 0in; margin-bottom: 0in" type="disc"> <li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 22.0pt"> May 21st, analyze the exploratory data and the data from observation, first draft on the preliminary analyses of the all the data. </li> </ul>   Step Ⅳ – Dissertation Writing and Revision <ul style="margin-top: 0in; margin-bottom: 0in" type="disc"> <li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 22.0pt"> June 5th, start to write the first draft of whole research, such as introduction, literature review, methodology, limitation and data analysis. </li> <li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 22.0pt"> June 15th, start to write the results and conclusion. </li> <li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 22.0pt"> June 20th, make some improvement on the research based on the first draft, and start the abstract. </li> <li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 22.0pt"> June 25th, final revision on the whole research </li> </ul>   Step Ⅴ – Printing, Binding and Hand in <ul style="margin-top: 0in; margin-bottom: 0in" type="disc"> <li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 22.0pt"> June 28th, start to print and bind the dissertation. </li> <li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 22.0pt"> June 31st, hand in the dissertation. </li> </ul>   u  Resource Requirements   It is not an easy job to finish a dissertation for the master degree, and a lot of skills and equipments are used during the whole dissertation writing. First of all, word-processed skill and professional SPSS knowledge must be thorough handled by the researcher.  And a good communication skill with the interviewees is also needed for the piece of research. Secondly, Library facilities are supposed to use most frequently and the up-to-date academic journals can be searched through the web searches. Last but not the least; the researcher should have a budget for this research since the whole research would cost a lot, for example, the questionnaires printing, the phone/travel cost for interviews, the dissertation printing etc.       Resources Audit Some information from the questionnaire and interview. And others from literatures.                   acknowledgement abstract   chaper1: introduction <5pages  1.1 introduction      1.2      1.3       .       . chapter2: literature review    <15pages      2.1 introduction      2.2      2.3       .       . chanpter3: background   <5pages>      3.1 introduction      3.2 chapter4: research methods(methodology)      <5pages>      4.1 introduction      4.2 prior literature      4.3 research method      4.4 research question      4.5 sample selection      4.6 data design      4.7 questionnaire administration procedure chapter5:results and analysis                     < 30pages>      5.1 introduction      5.2       .       . chapter6: conclusion and recommendation            <5pages>       6.1 introduction       6.2 review of objective       6.3 conclusion       6.4 limitation       6.5 recommendations reference              < 50> bibliography   appendixes(questionnaire              Credit:ivythesis.typepad.com

Dissertation

An Investigation for The development of e business for the Chinese garment company Master Dissertation Proposa...

Dissertation Plan

Dissertation Plan Requirement:   1.    Title 2.    Problem Definition 3.    Objectives of the study 4.    Research Design ·         Types of Research ·         Types of Data needed ·         Sources of Data ·         Data Collection Methods. ·         Sampling ·         Statistical Methods 5.    Tentative Outline of Content 6.    Time Plan     My Plan   1.       Title of Dissertation   The Effect of Job Satisfaction and Motivation on Organisational Commitment – A Case Study of CICS in China     2.       Problem Definition   This report describes an original research project on the topic of the effect of Job Satisfaction and Motivation on Organisational Commitment. Specifically, this project is designed to conduct within Conwell International Container Survey Company (CICS) in China. CICS is one of the famous container survey company and undergoing expansion steadily, with plan to employ more local inspectors to face the fierce competition in the market. In order to gain competitive advantage and adapt to the dramatic changing environment, it is important for CICS to achieve management efficiency through obtaining employee commitment or highly involvement in the organisation. Hence, it is worthy to investigate whether Organisational Commitment will be affected by job satisfaction and motivation.     3.       Objective of the Study   The objective of this paper is to review the numerous published theories related to Organisational Commitment, Motivation, and Job Satisfaction. The concept, significance, and measurement of commitment will be presented in the first section. Motivation definition and characteristics will be stated at the beginning of the second section followed by nine typical motivation theories covering needs (Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, 1954; Alderfer’s ERG theory, 1972; McClelland’s achievement, 1967; Herzberg’s dual-factor theory, 1966; McGregor’s X&Y theory, 1960), cognitive (goal-setting, expectancy theory, equity theory), and integration of motivation theories. Finally, conceptual and empirical work on Job Satisfaction is examined in terms of the association with Organisational Commitment. In addition, personal factors to be investigated in this study will be presented in order to find if there is any influence on organisational commitment. The purpose of reviewing all the theories is to define an analytical approach to the research question in the following chapter. The findings of this project will help senior management to develop an understanding of the drivers of Organisational Commitment amongst employees in CICS, and provide the employer with new information regarding employees’ psychological behaviour and attitudes to work. Furthermore, these findings will be helpful for CICS in establishing a long-term Human Resource Strategy.   4.       Research Design   A research was designed and implemented through questionnaire to test the relationship between Organisational Commitment and two independent variables of Job Satisfaction and Motivation. Two hypotheses were formulated and statistically tested using correlation analysis and multiple regression techniques. The demographic breakdown of the sample was analysed to ascertain if there were any differences between or among those groups. The finding of this survey is that there is a significantly positive relationship between Organisational Commitment, Job Satisfaction, and Motivation as identified in the Review of Literature. Furthermore, Job Satisfaction made the stronger unique contribution to explain the dependent variable rather than Motivation. The findings of this research develop an understanding of the drivers of Organisational Commitment amongst employees in CICS and provide the employer of CICS with new information regarding employees’ attitude to organisation, job, and motivation. Consequently, in order to improve organizational commitment, recommendations on increasing employees’ job satisfaction and establishing affective motivation system are suggested. Finally, limitations of this study and recommendation for further research are stated.     5.       Tentative Outline of Content   Abstract             Contents             Introduction             – Organization Commitment             – Motivation             – Job Satisfaction             – Factors to be investigated for the research             Research Methodology -          Hypotheses Formulation -          Questionnaire -          Population & sampling Data Collection Statistical Tests Measurement of the Variables Summary & Conclusion       6.       Time Plan (Six months duration)   1st – 2nd Month                    Prepare dissertation proposal & plan, outline of the dissertation,                                                       Literature review 3rd Month                            Data collection 4th Month                            Dissertation Writing 5th Month                            Dissertation Writing 6th Month                            Final check and revision.     Credit:ivythesis.typepad.com

Dissertation Plan

Dissertation Plan Requirement: 1. Title 2. Problem Definition 3. Objectives of the study 4. Research Design...

Essay Structure

The Structure of an Academic Essay Academic writing follows a set pattern. This paper briefly outlines the basic format that is used. All papers should have a Title. A sample “Five Paragraph Essay” is shown below for reference purposes, but your essays may have different levels of Subtopics. The Thesis Statement is usually one sentence. It provides the purpose of the paper and the main supporting points that will be made. Each supporting idea should be developed in a separate paragraph, unless ideas are so common that they can be grouped. A paragraph should be more than one sentence. Not all papers need a Table of Contents, but if the paper is more than eight pages, this is helpful for both the writer and the reader. Papers need References for facts and ideas cited, including your textbook! Be sure to use APA formats on headings, references, and citations. Check the APA Publication Manual for details. The first Introductory paragraph contains the thesis statement and introduces the main topic of the essay and the supporting subtopics. The Body of the essay contains Supporting paragraphs that develop each of the subtopics of the essay. The last Concluding paragraph restates the main thesis and summarizes the supporting ideas that were developed. Often the first and last paragraphs are rewritten at the end of the essay process, because they are similar in content. Title: __________________________ Table of Contents: (optional) ________________ I. Introduction Introduction and Thesis Statement II. Body A. First Supporting Idea B. Second Supporting Idea C. Third Supporting Idea III. Conclusion Closing statement and restate thesis References: American Psychological Association (APA) (2001). Publication manual of the American Psychological Association (5th ed.). Washington D.C.: Author. Purdue Online Writing Lab (OWL) (2006). Writing a thesis statement.   Credit:ivythesis.typepad.com

Essay Structure

The Structure of an Academic Essay Academic writing follows a set pattern. This paper briefly outlines the basic format that is ...

Dissertation proposal

Dissertation proposal This is the first formal stage of the process. It involves the preparation of a detailed proposal which will account for 15% of the total project mark. Your project proposal should be submitted to the School of Management as soon as possible. You should submit your proposal and wait for feedback before you undertake any fieldwork. Use the time you are waiting for feedback to develop your literature review. Your proposal needs to explain in detail the issue(s) to be addressed, the reasons for choosing this issue and the broad methodological framework which will be adopted. In addition, it needs to specify in detail the data/information which will be used, where or how this will be obtained, and the analytical techniques which will be appropriate given the issue and the information available. A detailed timetable is also required as is evidence of a thorough literature search and evaluation of the key articles relevant to your chosen topic. To help you successfully complete the project proposal the following framework is suggested, although it should be recognised that this may not be appropriate in all cases. Background and overview An introduction to the general area to be studied. Demonstration of relevant theories and concepts based upon literature review. Evidence to show why the project as research is of importance. Statement of issue and research objectives The detailed question which will be addressed. Sponsoring organisation, target audience or mentor as appropriate. An indication of why this detailed question is of importance. A summary of what researching and reflecting upon this question is designed to achieve. Methodology Details of the approach to be adopted. Related management concepts. Details of any information necessary to undertake the project and how this will be collected. For example: sources of secondary data, sources of primary data, outline of questionnaire, sampling method, sampling frame to be used, structure of interviews, interviewees, instrument selection for qualitative Dissertation Guidelines 7 data, etc. In addition, outline any assumptions being made, constraints which you may face and problems which could arise. Analysis Indicate clearly the technique or techniques to be used to analyse your information and how they will be used in the context of your particular project. If using quantitative analysis explain in detail how the particular techniques will be used in conjunction with your eventual data set. Structure of final project Give preliminary ideas on the major chapters and sections to be included in the final project together with an outline of the material which is likely to be contained in each. Time schedule Indicate start dates and completion dates for all major activities, using a Gantt Chart annexed to the proposal. Consider how you will manage the work of the project – what barriers there may be and how you will overcome them, what resources (time, people, equipment, etc) you will bring to bear. The dissertation is the most substantive piece of work that you will undertake during your studies at the School of Management. It will allow you to apply and evaluate the theories and concepts covered during your course and provide an opportunity to demonstrate project management skills. A research proposal of approximately 2000 words, which should include all of the elements which are indicated in the following pro forma structure of the research proposal: 8 Dissertation Guidelines Title (max. 15 words) • A title should summarise the main idea of the proposal simply and, if possible, with style. You may want to use a title and a subtitle, separated by a colon (e.g. ‘Brown Eggs: What they are Made of and How to Eat Them’) Abstract (max. 200 words) • A brief and comprehensive summary of your proposal. Introduction and relation to previous research (approx. 600 words) • A statement of your research question, possibly including a central question and three or four aspects or sub-questions (approx. 30–100 words depending on number of research questions). • Explain why this question is interesting (approx. 100 words). • Discussion of the relation between your proposed research and previous research. When expanded in the dissertation this will be referred to as a Literature Review (approx. 400 words). Proposed methods (approx. 400 words) • a precise statement of the methods you propose to use. • Justify the choices you make. Explain why this method is being used in preference to others. • Discuss the specifics of the method(s) you will use. Be clear about data sources and what will count as data in your research project. • (In your methods section you may need to make some reference to other exemplary studies and will certainly need to refer to the literature on research methods.) Reflections (approx. 500 words) Include reflections on: • Potential practical and empirical obstacles (e.g. access). • Conceptual and theoretical problems and difficulties. • Ethics (both in the narrow and the broader senses). • Your position as a researcher in a political field, and reflection on how this will impact on your study. Conclusion (max. 200 words) • Very brief wrap-up, including discussion of immediate next steps you need to take. Do not restate everything you have already said. Timetable (approx. 100 words, or a one page diagram) • Provide dates and major steps or milestones. • This should be presented in bullet points or as a pictorial diagram. • Make sure that you include other commitments such as holidays, and allowing time for your supervisor to approve your research proposal. References • A full list of works referred to in the text. • Quality is more important than quantity, demonstrating engagement with relevant literature. • The Internet should not be the only source of references. Appendices (optional) • Containing materials distracting from, but relevant to, the body of the proposal, for example, draft questionnaires, interview questions, other tables, lists, etc. • Do not overdo it. Only include things that really are relevant. you won’t get extra marks for this. Dissertation Guidelines 9 Dissertation support The team of Dissertation Tutors at ULSM are able to advise on the scope of projects and their feasibility within the requirements of the programme. Tutors may be contacted via the Dissertation Support Forums on Blackboard. In addition, you will find an extensive range of support material on Blackboard to assist you with the development of your research questions and methodology.   Credit:ivythesis.typepad.com

Dissertation proposal

Dissertation proposal This is the first formal stage of the process. It involves the preparation of a detailed proposal which will ac...

Academic Argument

Academic Argument             The article discusses the process of constructing and analyzing an effective argumentative essay. It starts with having a proposition, which states the issue to be debated upon. The position of the writer is another crucial element, determining the arrangement of details and evidences to convey a logical sequence. The careful planning, structuring and drafting follow once the logical structure of the paper is constructed. Extensive research is done to find evidences to support claims. Making an effective introduction to raise the argument, define terms and explain the subject area can be helpful to get the interest of the readers. The body of the paper discusses and provides the evidences, results of the research, makes significant use of narration, description, and exposition to clarify ideas, builds some other arguments to support the thesis statement, and refute and concede the ideas or arguments of the opposing view. The conclusion reiterates the argument of the paper, and gives the writer the chance to reflect on the paper. It usually indicates some of the ideas learned by the writer, his or her suggestions or recommendations, and directions which he or she hopes to pursue in the future. In relation to the work of  (2001), the basic structure of an academic argument was followed.  (2001) emphasized his argument by stating the significance of skills in historical analysis as an essential element on military decision-making. His proposition was supported by several evidences, such as statistics and direct quotes from officials, proving its importance and advantages to the soldiers of the Australian Defense Force (ADF), and the nation itself. For his conclusion, the author restated his argument and gave suggestions on how to improve the soldiers’ knowledge by learning from other institutions and applying them on their own institution. Credit:ivythesis.typepad.com

Academic Argument

Academic Argument The article discusses the process of constructing and analyzing an effective argumentative essay. It star...

Writing a Psychology Literature Review

C Writing a Psychology Literature Review There are two main approaches to a literature review in psychology. One approach is to choose an area of research, read all the relevant studies, and organize them in a meaningful way. An example of an organizing theme is a conflict or controversy in the area, where you might first discuss the studies that support one side, then discuss the studies that support the other side. Another approach is to choose an organizing theme or a point that you want to make, then select your studies accordingly. Regardless of how you decide to organize your literature review, it will have two purposes: (1) to thoroughly describe work done on a specific area of research and (2) to evaluate this work. Both the descriptive and evaluative elements are important parts of the review. You can’t do one or the other. If you just describe past research without evaluating it, you are merely summarizing information without digesting it. If you just discuss recent theories in an area without describing the work done to test those theories, then your arguments lack supporting empirical evidence. What to Evaluate Authors of literature reviews evaluate a body of literature by identifying relations, contradictions, gaps, and inconsistencies in the literature and by suggesting the next step needed to solve the research problem ( 1994). A literature review may compare studies in terms of assumptions about the research question, experimental method, data analysis, and any conclusions drawn. Literature Reviews versus Research Articles Literature reviews survey research done in a particular area. Although they also evaluate methods and results, their main emphasis is on knitting together theories and results from a number of studies to describe the “big picture” of a field of research. Research articles, on the other hand, are empirical articles, specifically describing one or a few related studies. Research articles tend to focus on methods and results to document how a particular hypothesis was tested. The Introduction of a research article is like a condensed literature review that gives the rationale for the study that has been conducted. Published literature reviews are called review articles. The emphasis in review articles is on interpretation By surveying all of the key studies done in a certain research area, a review article interprets how each line of research supports or fails to support a theory. Review articles are valuable, not only because they cite all the important research in the area surveyed, but also because they compare and evaluate all the key theories in a particular area of research. Again, notice the companion goals of a literature review: to describe and to evaluate. Steps in Developing a Literature Review Most literature reviews by students present the highlights of a research area and are not truly exhaustive. There is no strict rule, but a short literature review generally requires about 7-12 research articles and is about 10-15 pages long. There are three main steps: (1) select a research topic, (2) collect and read the relevant articles, and (3) write the review article. This straightforward-sounding process in fact requires quite a bit of work. Suitable topics must be selected with care and discrimination. Finding the right articles can be a challenge. Finally, once you have selected your articles, you must read them and understand their implications before you can begin to write. Each step is discussed in more detail below. SELECTING A TOPIC AND COLLECTING ARTICLES Selecting a topic, not writing the paper, is the hardest part of writing a competent literature review. Some research topics are much easier to write about than others. A fruitful topic covers a well-defined and wellstudied area of research, and selecting such a topic will make your job much easier and the resulting paper much more satisfying to read as well as to write. Start early to select your topic and collect articles (not necessarily in that order). Don’t underestimate the time and effort required before you can start writing. Plan to budget at least half of your time choosing and researching your topic, and the other half writing about it. Choose a Current, Well-studied, Specific Topic Choose a topic of current interest. Your goal is to summarize and evaluate current findings of a line of research. Pick a research topic about which articles are continuing to be published. Avoid defunct or little-known areas of research. To find out what’s “hot”, browse through recent issues of APA journals, particularly Psychological Bulletin , which consists entirely of review articles. And don’t forget that the topic should be personally interesting, not just of current interest in the scientific community. Choose a well-researched area. An area that is well defined and well studied will give you more lines of research to choose from. A line of research is a series of studies by the same individual or laboratory. A line of research may be initiated by a professor working with a graduate student ( 1988). Later studies may be conducted primarily by the graduate student ( 1990), followed by studies done by the graduate-student-turned-professor and her or his students (1994). An area of major research interest will have several lines of research as different labs approach a theory in different ways. Narrow your topic. The topic in a short review article has to be very narrow. A broad topic such as hypnosis, telepathy, or dreaming has literally thousands of articles on it, and you won’t be able to adequately cover such a topic in a relatively short paper. It is far more satisfying, to both the writer and the reader, to restrict your topic and cover it in depth. Comprehensiveness and narrowness of topic go hand in hand. DON’T: Pick a broad topic (e.g., language production in early childhood) and present an article on different aspects of it (e.g., one on syntax, one on semantics, one on individual differences), because your coverage of each area will be too superficial. DO: Choose a narrower topic (e.g., production of passive constructions in English-speaking children ages 4-6 years) and explore in depth recent work done in this specific area. Unless you’re already familiar with a research area, you usually cannot preselect a narrow enough topic. Go to the library or start an online literature search with a general topic in mind, then scan the articles that you find within that subject area to identify lines of research. Write about what interests you. Contrary to popular opinion, instructors like students to write about topics that they care about. If you’re interested in the topic, you’re likely to already know something about it, which will make it easier to gather information. As a result, you’ll write a paper that is more fun to write and probably more fun to read, too. Library Research Do a preliminary search. Visit the library or do an online literature search before you even decide on a topic. You may find several promising topics simply by looking for well-defined lines of research. The right topic may not be the one that sounds most intriguing at first. You will not know enough about potential topics to decide on one until you see what research is available. Look for well-defined research areas, then identify lines of research within those areas. Initially, consider several topics. Don’t get too attached to one topic before you see what research has been done. Search for helpful articles. Some articles will contribute more than others to your understanding of a topic. Sometimes you can find a pivotal article that can serve as a foundation for your paper. No one characteristic identifies a pivotal article. It may be exceptionally well written, contain particularly valuable citations, or clarify relationships between different but related lines of research. Try to find at least one article that you find really helpful before finalizing your topic. Two good sources of such articles in psychology are: • Psychological Bulletin, mentioned above • Current Directions in Psychological Science, published by the American Psychological Society, which has very general, short articles written by people who have published a lot in specific areas. Older review articles (written five or ten years ago) that you can update in your own review may help you to understand the history of a research area. To follow up on an older review article, use online searches to find out: • whether authors of articles cited in an early review article have continued to do research in the area (e.g., PsycInfo) • what recent studies have cited the authors from in the early review (e.g., Social Sciences Citation Index, or SSCI). Find readable articles. Some areas of research will be harder to understand than others. Scan the research articles in the topic areas you are considering to decide on the readability of research in those areas. Identify accessible articles. Avoid choosing a line of research in which all the articles have been published in journals found only in distant libraries (“distant” could mean Berkeley, Tacoma, or Health Sciences, depending on your mobility and transportation). NEVER assume that you can get articles through Inter-library Loan in time for a quarterly research project. Online research. Skillful use of online databases, such as PsycInfo, SSCI, or Medline, to narrow your search. Online search tools are rapidly changing. Consult your instructor or reference librarian if you’re not sure how to conduct an online search. READING THE ARTICLES Reading research articles is different from other types of reading. It tends to be slow and sometimes frustrating if you are not familiar with the topic and the language of the field. A good understanding of the research literature is a necessary prerequisite for writing a competent review article yourself. Understanding the literature requires you to read, re-read, and mentally digest complex ideas. How to Proceed Read the easier articles first. Difficult, condensed, or poorly written articles will be easier to understand if you read them last. Scan the article. Identify (1) the research question, (2) specific hypotheses, (3) the findings, and (4) how the findings were interpreted. It may help to use a summary sheet to list these key points for each article. For the initial scan, don’t read the articles straight through or you’ll get bogged down in detail. Read each section on its own until you understand it. First, look at just the Abstract to get an overview of the study. How you proceed from here is entirely up to you. You may want to read the Introduction to get a quick picture of the background and hypotheses, then skip to the tables and figures in the Results, then scan the Discussion to get a general idea of how the results were reconciled to the hypotheses. Jot down the main conclusion of each article, either on your summary sheet or next to the abstract, so that you can see it at a glance. This quick summary will later help you to incorporate each article into your paper. Read for depth. After you have an idea of the main ideas in each article, identify the precise methods used and the theories tested. An in-depth understanding is necessary for comparing the work of different researchers. A careful reading will reveal subtle (and sometimes not-so-subtle) differences in theoretical outlook. For example, you should notice some overlap among articles in the work cited, but how do different authors cite the same work? One author (a supporter of an earlier author’s work) may explain the method of the earlier study, delineate its results, and cite it repeatedly; a less enthusiastic author may simply include the earlier study as part of a long list of previous studies. Use such clues to discern differences in experimenter outlook. This exercise should be the most interesting part of your research, and your ability to write about them can enliven your literature review. Allow enough time. Before you can write about research, you have to evaluate it, which means that you first have to understand it. You have to digest it in order to understand it, which requires that you read it, thoroughly. This takes more time than many students realize. WRITING THE LITERATURE REVIEW You’re now ready for the last step: writing your review. Number of articles reviewed. Published review articles may cite more than 100 studies. Fortunately, most instructors require fewer than 20 (5-15 is typical). However, writing a less than exhaustive literature review means that student authors must be discriminating in choosing the most representative articles. Length. Student papers are typically 8-20 pages, double-spaced, but standards vary. Check with your instructor for course guidelines. Organization. Remember, you either began your literature review process with some theme or point that you wanted to emphasize, or you discovered some sort of theme as you read your articles. Either way, the organization of your paper should highlight the main theme. Although no two reviews look exactly the same (at least, they shouldn’t!), they tend to be organized something like this: • Introduce research question (what it is, why it is worth examining) • Narrow research question to the studies discussed. • Briefly outline the organization of the paper (for example, if there is a major controversy in this literature, briefly describe it and state that you will present research supporting first one side, then the other. Or, if three methodologies have been used to address the question, briefly describe them and then state that you will compare the results obtained by the three methods). • Describe studies in detail • Compare and evaluate studies • Discuss implications of studies (your judgment of what the studies show, and where to go from here) It is common (and often better) to combine the description and evaluation sections. If you do combine them, don’t forget to evaluate them. Headings. Headings delineate major sections to help show the organization of the paper. When you’re writing your draft, headings also pinpoint organizational problems. They’re useful only if they are specific. Vague article titles and headings are common weaknesses of student papers — and one of the easiest weaknesses to correct. How to Proceed: 1. Make yourself comfortable. Give yourself whatever is an optimal environment for you. 2. When writing the introduction, start off with a research question (e.g., cognitive abilities of infants), progressively narrow it (category formation in infants), and finally state the specific lines of research you will be discussing (eight recent articles on infant discrimination of basic-level categories for concrete objects). You want to establish a brisk but even pace when moving from a broad topic to a specific topic, avoiding sudden jumps that will lose your reader. 3. Describe each article (or each line of research, depending on what makes sense), then compare them. Comparisons are essential; descriptions alone are not illuminating. What do you compare? The possibilities include: research assumptions, research theories tested, hypotheses stated, research designs used, variables selected (independent and dependent), equipment used, instructions given, results obtained, interpretation of results, researcher speculations about future studies. Your job is to determine which factors are relevant. All studies have strengths and weaknesses. Finding them will help you make meaningful comparisons. Hint: If you’re having trouble here, it probably means that you don’t thoroughly understand the articles. Go back and look at them again. 4. Based on your comparisons, evaluate the work done in the area you are researching. State its strengths, weaknesses, and what remains to be done. Your assertions must be well supported by evidence. Then recommend future studies (specify how future work would add to that already done). Don’t start writing too early. Budget plenty of time for research and reading. If you start to write too soon, you’ll tend to “freeze” or to write in circles because you don’t yet have enough to say. Leave time for breaks. Leave time to step away (you’ll have a fresh perspective when you return), to revise, and if possible to give your paper to others to read. A complex paper like a literature review will require at least three drafts. Use specific language and support your arguments with concrete examples. Avoid vague references such as “this” (e.g., “this illustrates” should be “this experiment illustrates”). Sentences that start with “I feel” often signal unsupported statements and should be revised or deleted. Paraphrase, don’t quote. In scientific writing, paraphrasing an author’s ideas is more common than using direct quotes. For information on how to document the source of a paraphrase or quote, see the next section, “APA Citation Format” or the APA Manual (1994). Evaluate what you report. Your goal is to synthesize the research, not just describe it. Many writers find it easy to give detailed descriptions but balk at evaluating the work of established scientists. Do it anyway. Evaluation requires more thought and entails more risk, but without it, your paper is little more than a book report. Avoid plagiarism. Plagiarism is easy to avoid if you give credit where credit is due. Whenever you cite someone else’s ideas or use their language, give the name of the author and the year of publication (see next section). Using old review articles as a starting point for your paper is not plagiarism, as long as you don’t present someone else’s ideas as your own. Copyright 1997-2004, University of Washington litrev.pdf 04/09/04 APA CITATION FORMAT For a literature review, don’t use the headings found in published empirical articles (Introduction, Method, Results, and Discussion). Instead, use conceptual headings to delineate different paper sections. For example, a review paper on the topic of whether facial expressions are universally understood across cultures might include headings such as Studies Conducted in Western Cultures and Studies Conducted in Non-Western Cultures. Dividing the paper into different sections with headings makes the information more organized and accessible to the reader. Citing Sources in the Text When citing your sources, give the author’s last name and the year of the study (1982). Cite multiple studies in alphabetical order ( 1989; 1979; 1994). If you must use direct quotes, (1) have a good reason for doing so, and (2) cite the page number along with the author and year, like this: “Our difficulty in regard to sexual selection lies in understanding how it is that the males which conquer other males, or those which prove the most attractive to the females, leave a greater number of offspring to inherit their superiority than their beaten and less attractive rivals” ( 1874). Citing Sources in the References The following examples of reference formats are taken from the APA Manual (1994). APA requires these formats in manuscripts submitted to journals. These formats may be somewhat different than those used in the published articles. If you are unsure about which version to use, ask your instructor. Double-space references just as you do for the rest of the text (they are single-spaced below to save space). Credit:ivythesis.typepad.com

Writing a Psychology Literature Review

C Writing a Psychology Literature Review There are two main approaches to a literature review in psychology. One approach is ...