Research Topics: International Expansion Theories

Sample Theories of Culture Essay

Theories of Culture: New Zealand versus Hong Kong   Introduction. Culture is one of the most important factors in doing good business with any organization or company. With the continuous and dynamic business environment nowadays due to the changes in science and technology, changes also happen in terms of the development of culture in an organization. In addition, the development of a particular culture is also dependent on the culture of a particular country, which is affected by the cultural development of that particular society. The development of such culture also influences the way individuals extend their organizational culture to other members of the organization with a different type of culture. As such, this essay aims to describe the importance of culture to organizations, with a particular emphasis on the different problems that could be encountered due to the presence of cultural diversity. Personal experiences would also be provided in order to support the arguments of the essay.   Discussion. A specific individual works as an expatriate businessperson in a particular organization with a different culture. This particular individual is from New Zealand, and works for an international company based in Hong Kong. In this particular situation, the working environment, culture, and the problems that might be encountered by that particular individual can be assessed. Primarily, the culture and the business environment of both countries must be regarded and evaluated. Both New Zealand and Hong Kong have been colonized and highly influenced by the British culture. However, both countries have developed and flourished differently because Australia has more influence to New Zealand and China has larger influence to Hong Kong. In this regard, the differences of two countries in terms of culture are evident. In terms of language, although the British were able to successfully impart the English language, both countries were able to retain their native languages. Majority of the citizens in Hong Kong speak Cantonese over English (“Culture of Hong Kong”, 2007), while most of the citizens in New Zealand speak both English and Maori (“New Zealand – Culture, Etiquette and Customs”, 2007). In terms of religion, citizens of New Zealand are more Western-inclined, being Anglican, Presbyterian or Catholics (“New Zealand – Culture, Etiquette and Customs”, 2007), compared to citizens of Hong Kong, who are into Confucianism, Buddhism and other Eastern-influenced religions (Williams, 2007). However, although torn apart due to the influences of Western and Eastern cultures, both New Zealand and Hong Kong are inclined in paying particular importance to their cultures, most especially in terms of customs, beliefs, values, and practices.             In terms of customs and culture, citizens of New Zealand are reserved, friendly, polite, hospitable, casual, conservative, environmentalists, social, respectful, honest, direct, and egalitarian (“New Zealand – Culture, Etiquette and Customs”, 2007). On the other hand, citizens of Hong Kong are persevering, tolerates uncertainty most of the time, expressive of opinions, implements a collectivist approach, culture-conscious, gives particular attention to respect, conversation among groups are close in terms of space, patient, direct, loyal, and recognizes social inequality in terms of the distribution of wealth and power (Williams, 2007).             Being an expatriate businessperson in a different country with a different culture and society, it is important for the person to observe the role of language attitudes and motivation on the social and cultural adjustment, and the job performance (2006) of other individuals in the organization. To be able to do so, the importance of cross-cultural or intercultural communication must be emphasized. Although both concepts are slightly different from another, both are important in the peaceful and successful business ventures and negotiations between the business expatriate from New Zealand and the specific Hong Kong organization. It has been reported that cross-cultural involves the comparison of communication across different cultures, while intercultural communication refers to the communication between people from different cultures (2003). In this regard, the common denominator of both concepts is culture, which pertains to a complex whole that includes knowledge, belief, art, morals, laws, customs, and other capabilities acquired by man in the society (2007). As such, in both concepts, both culture and communication must be able to interact successfully in order for an individual to function effectively in the society. In this sense, both culture and communication must be given emphasis by the business expatriate to be able to function effectively in the organization. Aside from cross-cultural or intercultural communication, another important factor that must be given emphasis in the effective and successful interrelations of the business expatriate is non-verbal communication. In giving emphasis to cross-cultural communication, verbal communication can be used, which refers to the direct conversation of the speaker and listener, and the sending and receiving of messages through speaking and listening. On the other hand, non-verbal communication involves the communication of feelings behind the message itself, thus, dependent on different modes, such as the environment, interpersonal distance, postures, gestures, facial expressions, voice quality, pitch, tone, and personal appearance (1967). As such, to be able to express effective communication in the workplace environment, both verbal and non-verbal communication must be used. However, because the business expatriate belongs to a workplace environment with a different culture, practices, beliefs, and values, he or she would be able to effectively and successfully relate to his or her colleagues with the use of non-verbal communication.             It has been mentioned that due to the dynamic and multi-faceted changes that continually happen to the society, cultural diversity and conflicts are highly-present in any business organization. Based on the previous discussion, cross cultural or intercultural and non-verbal communication are important concepts that must be given emphasis in the aim of the business expatriate to exist and function effectively and successfully in the organization with a different culture. However, before becoming successful and effective, several problems in the workplace could be encountered, which may contribute to the inefficiency and ineffectiveness of the business expatriate in the new organization. One of the problems that can be encountered is ethnocentrism. Ethnocentrism, in simple terms, is the belief of a particular individual that his or her culture is superior to the culture of other individuals or groups. Because the business expatriate could be better versed in the English language than his or her new colleagues could, he or she may believe that his or her culture is superior to the Chinese culture. In addition, although both countries were influenced by the British culture, the development of the culture of New Zealand turned out to be more westernized than the culture of Hong Kong, thus, giving the impression of being superior to his or her Chinese colleagues. Another problem that can be encountered is culture shock, which is the expression of anxiety, astonishment, or disgust with a certain cultural practice, value or belief of a person or group of individuals having a different culture. Culture shock may lead to xenophobia, or the phobia or irrational fear being developed through dislike of a certain culture. In this regard, both cultures may feel the same way, thus, contributing to conflicts or problems in the organization. The third possible problem to encounter is cultural dimension distance, which is dependent upon the five cultural dimensions emphasized by Hosted. In this regard, the power distance, individualism, masculinity, uncertainty avoidance, and long-term orientation of both cultures are highly different from one another (Hosted, 1980). In comparison, inequality is less endorsed by New Zealanders than the Chinese do; are more individualistic than the Chinese, which are more collectivistic; are more masculine than the Chinese, which pay particular attention to the distribution of roles in the family and community; are less tolerant than the Chinese culture in terms of uncertainty and ambiguity; and are more long-term oriented compared to the Chinese, being more respectful for tradition.      Conclusion. From the discussion, it can be deduced that for one with a different culture and belief, to successfully and effectively function and work in a particular working environment, different aspects in cultural communication must be given emphasis and importance, such as cultural diversity, cross-cultural or intercultural communication, and non-verbal communication. However, the recognition of the importance and function of such concepts are not enough to provide solutions when cultural-related problems and conflicts arise in the workplace environment. Problems including ethnocentrism, culture shock, and cultural dimension distance can be recognized to be contributory to the problems of any organization with cultural diversity. Nevertheless, although the presence of cultural diversity can lead to conflicts, differences and other problems in the organization, the involvement of cultural diversity and cross cultures can also provide the organization with maturity, development and increased communication and teamwork. Thus, problems and conflicts must be provided with effective and efficient solutions for more effective organizational development and performance.   Recommendation. The general recommendation for providing solutions for the problems related to cultural diversity is the increase of communication among individuals. Increase in communication involves the expression of both verbal and non-verbal communication, thus, enabling the business expatriate and his or her Chinese colleagues to share and obtain information from one another, thus, reducing becoming anxious and disgusted with the cultures of one another. Increase in communication would also enable the business expatriate to learn the language of his or her colleagues. Learning their language is one of the most essential aspects in effective communication with members of a host community, as this would enable the business expatriate to develop his or her social and language skills, which are relevant to the culture of the host community, and inline with his or her cross-cultural transition (2006). Another recommendation would be the increase of group activities in the organization that would involve interactive activities for the business expatriate and his or her colleagues, to be able to increase interaction and communication, thus, gradually developing cultural relativism and appreciation for both cultures. In this regard, the key for lessening the negative effects of cultural diversity in the workplace is through effective and successful communication, which helps express similarities and differences of individuals efficiently. Credit:ivythesis.typepad.com

Sample Theories of Culture Essay

Theories of Culture: New Zealand versus Hong Kong Introduction. Culture is one of the most important factors in doing good business wi...

Underlying Theories on Interventionism Examines the Nature and Jurisdictions of Interfering

Underlying theories on interventionism examines the nature and jurisdictions of interfering. The use or threat of force to coercion in altering a political or cultural situation characterizes interventionism. In UK, interventionism commonly deals with government’s or state’s intervention in other’s affairs. It is thus evident that it is an aspect of political philosophy that can be extended to other’s cultures, religions, lifestyles and economic activities. Commonly, interventionism deals with the justification of government’s interference, whether domestically or internationally, with the actual or potential use of coercion.             Intervention speaks of attempts to persuade others to change coercible or forcefully beyond reasoning. Breaking diplomatic relations is not a form of interventionism rather, an option to explain possible choices, but by doing it through a coercer it is an interventionism. If the choices are normally unacceptable or less acceptable, the process is interventionism. To this extent, “governments or states may legislate programs from people to take out adequate insurance or invest sufficiently into pensions requiring health checks or continued education” said Alexander Moseley. On the other hand, political realism reflects that policy prescriptions aids to the primacy of national interest justifying the reasons of economic profit as well as for balance of power considerations (Moseley, 2006).             Economic interventions are common in modern, developed countries like UK. Interference includes taxes, targeted tax credits, minimum wage laws, union shop rules, contracting preferences, direct subsidies, pricing, production quotas, import quotas and tariffs. Effects of interventionism are evident on the reduced overall size of British economy and violation of domestic economic borders. The benefits are usually felt by a small amount of people and the costs are over the entire population and creates political imbalance the intervenes and intervener.             According to  (2004), in context, “the United Kingdom is a rapidly changing nation in a rapidly changing world”. The Conservative party and the Labour Party are transforming in order to cope with challenges and changes. It is not an easy task though because of the manner of intervening in the economy by political positions. “Politicians from the right have promoted private property and free markets while politicians in the left have supported collective ownership of key sectors of the economy”. Eventually, this will lead to fragmentation within the economic system in UK. To put, industries and/or markets and employees and employers do have their own political preference.             In between 1945 to 1975, both parties mark a cross consensus on economic policy. The Conservative and Labour adapt Keynesianism wherein the government spending is varied, demand is managed through tax and interest rates manipulation and nationalisation or state ownership is prioritized. Traditional approaches to economic policy produce inappropriateness to modern economic conditions. When Tony Blair becomes the leader, the Labour Party adopts the monetarist macro-economic policy and abandons its commitment to public ownership. There is a new consensus running between the Conservative and the Labour Parties. Both are now “committed to capitalism, promoting ‘sound money’, low inflation, private ownership and low taxation” (2004). The Labour Party sees an active interventionist role of the government in the micro economy level. The government’s belief is to maintain and promote competitiveness. What is unlikely, they are influencing the level of investment, required degree of education and training and the conditions of the labour market to an extent of disregarding the rights and interests of the working people.             Thatcherism continues to influence British political and economic life. Tony Blair, according to some, as a “neo-Thatcherism”, mimics economic policies such as anti-trade union legislation, privatisations and general free market approach. Anti-trade union legislations infringes provision of benefits to members such as ensuring members against unemployment, ill-health, old age, and funeral expenses; collective bargaining power where negotiations with employers over wages and working conditions; industrial actions like organizational strikes or lockout-resistance. It is hard to maintain and improve the employment conditions of the wage-earners without trade unions (New Statesman, 2005).             Privatization, as a part of government intervention, affects more on the employment relationships negatively. State-owned enterprises may borrow may borrow money from debt markets cheaply than private enterprises. Privatizing may force the company to raise prices, lay-off workers and/or lower wages. Anti-privatizations organizations claim lack of incentive for government to ensure financial stability of the said company and due to pressure of future elections the government maximizes efficiency in nationalized companies. Essential profitability of private organizations’ operations will be contractual and payment blocking. Moreover, dangerous cost-cutting measures might be taken in order to maximize profit. Such measure can fuel misunderstanding and disagreements between employees and employers. Interference can also harnesses confusion on organizational relationship regarding power structure from a state-owned asset into private hands. Trade unions oppose privatization because of corruption and accountability, lack of market discipline, cuts in essential services, natural monopolies, concentration of wealth, political influence, downsizing and profit (2006).             Through codes of conduct and declaration of interest,     ethical standards and standards of probity cannot assure the transparency of private organizations. This will allow the employers to control the sale for personal gain at the expense of the employees. The public holds no control over private organizations. Private organizations lack strategic importance because their only goal is to maximize profits. They are just going to serve those who can pay disregarding the needs of the majority which is anti-democratic. Furthermore, this can lead to abandonment of the social obligation to those who are less able to pay and where service is unprofitable. A true competition may be at risk and profit is concentrated to owners instead of the common good. A conflict may arise wherein service level is at stake. More likely, private companies cut back on maintenance or staff costs, trainings, and etc., sacrificing the development and improvement of its workforce (2001).             Privatization, in some cases, is acceptable as it consistently improves efficiency through improved incentives and reduces cost. In public sector, a threat of privatizing a company improves transparency, accountability of management, improved internal controls, regulatory systems and better financing. Perhaps, the intervention must deal with redistribution and employee retraining 2006).             Intervention must focus on employment sustainability rather than on employer-core policies.  This concept shall trigger ideas for policy development. Sustainability is also “to do with job retention, job stability and career advancement”, employee and employer behaviour, employment measures, sufficiency and technical and economic change (2001),             In UK, policy evaluation focuses more on short-term outcomes instead of sustainability issues. Policy options includes intensive and flexible sequencing options, trainings to support advancement, impact of labour markets on retention, pilot testing of pre- and post-employment services and  role of intermediary organizations in delivery of services. Employment sustainability can be address in a number of ways including: job matching mechanisms, work trial supports and preparation assistance, development and further development of skills, expansion of discretionary approach, utilization of knowledge and skills, continuation of support in the workplace, liaison and mentoring system. All of these can develop strategies to maintain a sound relationship between employees and employers through the improvement of by-laws, economic laws and codes,   and existing policies in accordance with Labour Party’s objectives and the goal of trade unions.             “The attraction of policies that foster employment sustainability of a ‘win-win-win’ situation: individual and family welfare is enhanced; the skill-base of the economy is increased with positive benefits for international competitiveness; and the public expenditure on welfare benefit is reduced”, Keller, et at.             Positive interventionism might be of big help if the policies will include addressing supply and demand, targeting to ensure employee-employer effectiveness, seamless service provision which transcends across the working public, and support on cases of unemployment.             In micro and macro dimension, the effectivity and credibility of the state determines the extent of intervention so as to identify the level of investment and the rate of economic growth. Intrusion of the state in a collectivised economic system depends largely on the political standpoint of the person using the term intervention. In macro dimension, the government regulates through monetary and fiscal policies in pursuing of economic objectives. While, in micro dimension, the government focuses on both labour and product markets to support and achieve policy objectives. These policies include agricultural, education, training, manpower, competition, energy and transport. Taking it from UK perspective, it is often viewed with multi-national complications and burdensome regulations Peter, 2003).             Regulations and deregulations build structural and organizational confusion within an employer-employee relationship and the economic spectrum in general. In January 1994, the Deregulation and Contracting Out Bill proposes 23 measures ending 605 regulations. Mr. Michael Heseltine, then Board of Trade President, states it was the ‘largest bonfire of controls that has taken place’. It introduces legally-binding undertakings in merger cases to avoid investigations and small companies with less than £90K are released to have their accounts audited. These changes bring the administration to mandate compliance costs of new regulations. However, the weakness of these new regulations implies intersection on traditional practices of long-time companies. Adaptability to ever-changing policies and regulations produces be wilderness among the employers and employees. The Labour Party, in order to adjust quantifies the costs and benefits of the regulations in 1997. Regulatory Impact Assessment (RIAU) proposes a UK legislation that has an impact on businesses and company models including employment relationship within a certain organization or body to reduce ‘red tape’ (Peter, 2003). Some people questioned the particular relevance of regulation and deregulation, as a form of intervention, in the industry and economy as it is not making things better but worsen matters specifically in underlying consequences of employment relationship. For example, the Department of Trade and Industry in addressing the needs of manufacturing industry, it is beyond their jurisdiction.             On a more positive note, intervention may aim at increasing competition with regards to the effect of the latter to strength of competitive pressures in the market. For example, in December 2002, the Office of Fair Trading proposes to deregulate the market for dispensing National Health Service prescription is an acceptable mean of encouraging competition. The greater the competition is, the more companies will emerge and the more jobs are created. Through intense competition, the public is also benefiting because of low prices, a more reliable services and the power to have options. Accordingly, government interventionist policies are basically argumentative the way it is perceive by the major political parties in UK.             The human resource management (HRM) contributes to the success and failure of a company. Its dimension and impact is limited but growing base on organizational performance of HRM across all sectors. Performance can be assessed by means of indicators such as measures of activity, measures of output and measures of outcome. In both directions, the government affects HRM approaches and practices and the characteristics, context and priorities of the organization. Recently, HR policies and management “right” are increasingly recognized to upgrade the capacities of the workforce (Buchan, Plumbed Central).               According to Richardson and Thompson (1999), best practices, contingency and linkages contribute to and improve the business performance.  Such identified practices, strategies and interventionism can affect the effectivity of HRM in the long run. A most recent issue on HRM interference is off shoring. This can reduce costs and enhance service but it can also unnerve and demodulate home country employees said Jonathan Gardner, an economist at Watson Wyatt. Among country employees this produces job-insecurity in UK-based companies. Perceived threats to UK employment from off shoring to developing countries weaken security policies. Great job migration and/or offshore outsourcing are increasingly alarming. Companies neglect the idea of combining business models and setting rather than focusing on off shoring to reduce labour costs (HRM Guide, 2007).  This is high time for the government to intervene and trade unions to realize the economic implications on the rights and interests of home country employees.             As I mentioned above, intervening factors in HRM focuses on training on employees. Since the UK lacks of skilled workers, training and retraining is a must.  The British Chamber of Commerce (BCC) reports 55% of the employers are finding it hard to recruit skilled workers. As the effects of globalization is more widely felt, the British economy must remain competitive and the government must support initiatives in employee development (HRM Guide, 2007).             So much movement in the employment market leads to job destruction and not creation. There are 2.65 million British private jobs are destroyed annually and 2.76 million created. Aside from regular skills upgrading, provided by the government, they must also intervene on policy development regarding provisions for employment security, extensive training, improve intranet policy management, reduce status distinctions and barriers between large- and small-scale industries and policies on compensation linked to performance.             In UK, the current economic systems are private ownership of the means of production, public ownership on the means of production and the third system is interventionism. Government interventionism is viewed as a possible and viable social cooperation within the industry. The UK state tends to be an interventionist state as they not openly profess socialism. This is characterized by dualism between market and authority.             Under certain pressures, it forces the entrepreneur and the owners to use presented means which they are not likely to use. Restrictive measures are impose upon by the authority including production, implementation of policies, employment relations, policies within the company, and so on. Each interference alters management and organizational practices and diverts goals and vision of the companies in attempt to influence and drastically change the economy for the common good. Restrictive measures may or may not forbid the measures undertaken by such companies. Credit:ivythesis.typepad.com

Underlying Theories on Interventionism Examines the Nature and Jurisdictions of Interfering

Underlying theories on interventionism examines the nature and jurisdictions of interfering. The use or threat of force to coercion in al...

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