How to Analyse/Critic a Film: the Elements of Film Analysis and Criticism
Even though film do not have an interactive audience in terms of acting as compared to theatre ( 2001, 10), it could be said that there are billion of people who watch films. They find their personality in the portrayal of the characters in movies. They empathize with the fate of the characters present in the film. Viewers also delight when the character in which they can associate themselves with are in good condition after a series of hardships and troubles. They are defected when the character they adore dies or loses the fight (1990, 2-3). This one among the several reasons on why viewers who see the influences behind and surrounding filmmakers can more clearly and fully understand why films are presented in such ways.
Meanwhile, prevalent societal attitudes may exert powerful influences on filmmakers ( 1999, 375). The audiences are drawn to the plot and establish empathy with the characters with whom they are able to identify. Empathy is among the primary mechanisms that results to responses of viewers to frightful stimuli ( 2002, 221). People watch films or even shows in the television to liberate themselves from various conditions such as boredom, personal problems, or even for the sake of curiosity, entertainment, and mere appreciation of the film as a form of art. In every given country, it constitutes a significant proportion of the worldwide population of film lovers and viewers.
As (2002, 352) affirmed, the entertainment brought about by film (and other forms of communication medium) is an effective and acceptable way to relieve one’s discontentment and stressing situations of everyday life. Primarily, the entertainment that films offer to everyone who sees it serves as an activity that delights and enlightens people’s viewing experiences even just for a temporary span of time.
However, the presence of many films that vary from genre, languages, and even area of origin plus the factors affecting the growth, commercialization, globalization, and modernization of the worldwide cinema business, needs to qualify the standards of a good and worthy film. The question of what makes a good film is the real challenge to face. The quest for the best film among other films in the commercial market is one of the serious endeavours of every film aficionado. Thus, there is the presence of different worldwide evaluation and classification groups, institutions, and organizations directed to film analyses, reviews and criticisms.
This paper aims to discuss the concepts of how to analyse a film from several given aspects. These aspects are so-called the elements of film analysis. They are the following: theme, plot, acting and actors (actress), cinematography (camera composition, movement, colour and texture), lighting, sound (sound effects, background music, and spoken dialogues), production design (costumes, make-up, and location), editing, and most importantly, direction. Film analysis or criticism may also vary from the approach used such as by semiotics, psychoanalysis, discourse analysis, content analysis, political economy (Marxism), or globalisation. Also, this report ventures to the discovery of the effect(s) it may give to people and why it successful to earn a great box office. On some instances, several films will be used as parameter in relation to the area being talked about.
Guidelines in Analysing a Film
In reference to the general principles of writing a film essay, you should shun from re-telling the whole story if you are discussing the importance or meaning you get from a film. Writing a film is not a narration. This is a common problem faced by every writer, professional film critic or college students. In a popular situation, they just recount the story. Indeed, it is simple to write a rundown of all the main details of the plot. However, one should remember that the primary purpose of your essay is not to re-tell the scene by scene description of the movie, rather to elucidate your interpretation. The details of the plot are used only as a support for a point you are making regarding the meaning of the scene or a series of events in a film. It is also a requirement that the essay must be in the present tense. But if you are explaining the event in the past at an earlier point in the film before a scene that you are talking about, of course you have to use past tense ( 2006).
When discussing the actions of a character in a film, the focus should fall on the character and certainly not on the actor. It is advisable to use the full name of the character followed by the name of an actor in parenthesis if you refer to the character for the first time. In succeeding references, it is recommended to use the last name of the character unless he or she is always referred to in the film through his or her first name. Take this as an example, “When we first see (Clint Eastwood), is struggling in the mud.” On the other hand, you may use the name of the actor when you are speaking about his or her technique, etc. This is illustrated in this instance, “Clint Eastwood, director of Unforgiven, casts himself as the ex-gunfighter . Eastwood spares nothing to make himself appear unglamorous.” ( 2006)
In referring the name of a film in writing, it should be done in italics: Pearl Harbor, for instance, rather than Pearl Harbor. If the title cannot be italized, for example, writing in an e-mail document, you need to write it in all uppercase letters: PEARL HARBOR. About the titles of songs in movies, they should be placed in quotation marks like this: “As Time Goes By.” One can clearly see that the first letters of words as and by are capitalized. This is simply because they are the first and last words of the title. Also, it is a must that the first word after a colon in a title be capitalized. Articles such as a, an, and the, and short conjunctions and prepositions below five letters are not capitalized. All other words in the title need to be capitalized. Prior to the submission of your final draft on any writing about film, it is important that you revise it ( 2006).
It is important to begin your essay with an effective introduction. The opening paragraph should hook the reader to read your essay. It is better to start with a definition, use a quotation or a story of personal experience, open one or more questions, or start discussing an issue or idea which you will expound as you go further with your essay. Moreover, you should use this beginning material to guide into your thesis at the end of the paragraph. The central point of your essay is the thesis which you will explain and strengthen by giving substantial details and examples. In giving details and examples to support your ideas, it is effective to use specific details about editing, camera movement, lighting, music, and gestures and words of actors to enhance the meaning you drawn from the film ( 2006).
It is important to keep in mind that film essay is not a review, it is indeed a criticism. The essay should not summarize the plot. You should assume that the reader has seen the film. Criticism involves the development of an argument and strengthening it with substantial evidences from the film. It certainly does not involve giving of opinions.
The Basic Film Production Process
Prior to movie writing and production, it is best to mirror on the similarities movies and short stories or novels use to present ideas. Similarities of movies and books include the use of character and plot development: events happen to characters or characters make events happen; putting the characters in conflicts within themselves or with others and after that to try either to resolve those conflicts or to avoid resolving them; the utilization of artistic technique: giving us hint to the coming events to increase our anticipation or wonder, irony and paradox to enable us to view the other side of the coin; and the utilization of images: while books use figurative language, movies on the other hand, utilize at least five techniques such as music, lighting, camera movement, editing, and the casting of actors with definite physical characteristics. Playing music is a nice technique to deepen our emotional response to the scene even it is used in the background. Lighting may influence the mood of a scene and may shape the way we recognize characters. The movement of camera can influence our response to a scene by centering our attention on what the director would like us to see. Film editing itself splices, or cuts pieces of film together so that time becomes fluid the way it is. Visual appearance is often used as basis for selecting an actor (2004).
Film as a Form of Art
Film is a medium of a “broader global patterns and frameworks, especially the communication industry as an integrated interacting whole” ( 1997, 97). It provides a giant mirror that serves as a reflection f the values, the half-truths, and he ideals of the society and its people ( 1997, 201). Universal emotions such as fear, love, disappointment, etc. have been experienced y people. It could be a total ruin, complete love, paralyzing fear, or savage violence. Through film, it blows up these emotions until they become “larger than life” (1997, 201). Because of film’s popularity and universality, many people use films as an agent of communication, education, learning, and entertainment. The feeling of audience and resemblance of existence is the basic element of cinema without which there is no art of filmmaking. The complex, artistic whole and elements are facilitated by a number of linkages with the artistic cultural experiences of the society (1994, 1). Film is an externalization of what is real in life. As stated, people relate and learn from it. It is a medium of entertainment, communication, and instruction. Viewers resort to movies as means of diversion and amusement.
The viewers differ in taste and perception of what is a good or bad film. What is a good film? A clear purpose, good script, unity of elements and technical presentation, commercial viability, and entertainment value, constitutes a good film. The presence of a purpose in creating a certain film is the most basic consideration that a filmmaker must bear in mind. What is his/her intent – to inform, entertain, earn, etc.? With the identification of the specific intention, the filmmaker will have a clearer visualisation of the next steps to complete the entire process. A well-written, researched, and prepared script equates to a good story and theme. The universality of the theme may serve as a unifying agent in a wide array of viewers. To have a satisfactory crafted film, there is the presence of unity in terms of its elements and technical superficialities or presentation. Since filmmaking is not just an art but also a form of business, it must be commercially viable and profitable. Lastly, whatever the intent is, the entertainment value of the film must be highly sustainable. As an example, the classic Steven Spielberg’s E.T. (Extra Terrestrial) released in 1982 is considered a good film due to the fact that it convened the standards identified above.
The role of motion pictures in the society is very essential. According to (1997, 164), film surmounted the barriers of language and carried out visual messages to the remote places of the world. The developments of motion pictures lead to a more powerful mass medium for entertainment and transmission of ideas. Today, in its many forms, “film projects reality and the illusion of reality on theatre screen, on television sets, in school classrooms, and on building walls in isolated villages” ( 1997, 164).
No other mass media industry is so fragmented than film (1997, 96-97). Today’s film are created by one group (the writers and producers), funded by another group (the investors), sold by a third group (the distributors), and show y a fourth group (the exhibitors). also showed in the statistics of worldwide film production that Asian countries are in the top position. As quoted:
“…among these is India and Japan producing approximately 400 films a year each. The second group of producers includes Italy, the United States, and the former Soviet Union, which are each credited with 250 to 300 films a year. Countries producing up to 200 films a year include France, the Republic of Korea, Greece, Hong Kong, and Spain; and those nearing 100 films per year are Mexico, Germany, the United Kingdom, and Pakistan” (96-97).
Furthermore, regardless of some considerable factors such as economy, estimated that the global production of long films vary between 3, 400 and 3, 5000 per year. But this figure does not indicate the number of films distributed internationally.
In worldwide film market, the American films hold a dominant share. They have joint ventures with a number of countries in the European continent such as UK, France, Italy, and Germany in terms of producing films and its distribution. But the rest of the countries that produces films have little international distribution and can rarely sell them outside of their own national market (1997, 96-97). Today’s major production studios are trying to become what they once were – a mature oligopoly in the “business of dreams”, which is filmmaking ( 1990, 181).
Film Theories
In every study in a selected area of specialization, there are established body of knowledge (such as concepts and theories) that serve to be the constant principle. In this case, film theory is the foundational basis. According to ( 1884, 3), modern theory approaches nothing directly – neither the audience through questionnaires and neuro-physiological experiments, nor the films through minute formal analyses and experiments. Such audience studies and formal experiments which do go on in mainstream film theory are invariably guided by the current general discourse or by reflective concepts. Today, the state of film theory has come to be an accumulation of ideas, and attitudes clustered around concepts. Film theory is, in short, a verbal representation of the film complex ( 1984, 3).
Film theory provides a definitive structural paradigm to study the writing, cinematic symbols, diegenesis, genre, image, narrative, subjectivity, and techniques ( 1984, 4). From beginning up to the end of a movie, the principles of film theory is maintained. More often than not, they are embedded in the several aspect of the presentation such as genre, plot, dialogues, symbolic interactions, and the likes. With the evolution of the cinema, there has been significant emergence of other relative theories. These theories are the basis in criticising films in general. The classical theories, however, will be discussed in the latter parts of the paper.
Film Genres
Genre’ is a French word meaning ‘type’ or ‘kind’ ( 2000, 9). In film theory, genre is the prime method of classifying films. It primarily refers to films that possess similarities in given parameters such as narrative elements and the way filmmakers construct it. A genre is an indistinctive term that offers a wide range of application. (2000, 31) argues that genre is ubiquitous and a present phenomenon that is common to all instances of discourse. It must be clearly modify in terms of the perception and to some extent also the location. According to , Hollywood’s genres are no longer the solitary or even the principal site of genre in the cinema, instead becomes just one particular site. He continuously describe that the film types in Hollywood also expanded for the past years. To quote:
“It now encompasses ‘the feature film’, ‘the newsreel’, ‘the cartoon’, ‘the B film’, ‘the A film’ and ‘the serial’ as well as-and often at the same time as-’the western’, ‘the musical’, ‘the gangster film’ and the others.” (31)
In addition to the argument that genre is multi-dimensional means that attention now needs to be paid as much to the factors that impinge on audience expectations, the construction of generic corpuses, and the processes of labelling and naming as to those that impinge on the films themselves ( 2000, 31).
Generally, there are three category of film genre – setting, mood, and format ( 1988, 4). Setting is the place where the film is completed. On the other hand, mood is the emotional feeling carried throughout the motion picture’s narrative. Lastly, format is the approach on how the film was made using a particular material or specific method.
The following are film genres according to the specific category they belong (2000; 1992; 1992; 1988).
Setting
v Crime – criminality, deviant behaviours, and force is palpable; e.g. Cicade de Deus/City of God (), The Silence of the Lambs (), Scream (), and Spiderman 2 ( )
v Film noir - philosophical challenge on the essence of the world is identifiable; e.g. Rebel Without a Cause () and Sin City ( )
v Historical – past accounts are recounted; Schindler’s List and Amistad ( ) and Titanic ()
v Science fiction (or sci-fi) – alternate reality is present in connection to the future and space; e.g. Star Trek series (various directors) and Star Wars series (various directors)
v Sports – focuses on sports activity; e.g. Ali (), Million Dollar Baby () and A League of Their Own ()
v War – portrayals during a period of war is the main idea; e.g. The Lord of the Rings trilogy ()
v Western – colonialism in western United States is recognized. E.g. Beneath Western Skies () and Western Renegades ()
Mood
v Action – moral interaction of force and violence between a battle of good and evil; e.g. Lethal Weapon (), James Bond series (various directors) and The Lord of the Rings trilogy ()
v Adventure – the play of possibility (risk, danger, etc.) and even fantasy; e.g. Raiders of the Lost Ark and Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade (), Harry Potter series (various directors) and Pirates of the Caribbean ()
v Comedy – elicits laughter and comical amusement; e.g. The Animal (), American Pie ( ), and Pretty Woman ()
v Drama – character improvement and struggle; e.g. The Godfather ( ), Sunset Boulevard () and Casablanca ()
v Fantasy – myths and legends that deviates from real world; e.g. Star Wars series (various director), The Lord of the Rings trilogy () and Harry Potter series (various director)
v Horror – promotes audience’s apprehension and terror; e.g. Psycho (), The Exorcist () and A Nightmare on Elm Street ()
v Mystery – solving unknown cases based from series of clues; e.g. Citizen Kane ( ), Rear Window () and Memento ()
v Romance – elucidates on the experience of love and being loved; e.g. Casablanca (), Serendipity () and Message in a Bottle ()
v Thriller – astonishes the audience in anticipation and nervousness. E.g. The Silence of the Lambs (), Raiders of the Lost Ark () and Psycho ()
Format
v Animation (cartoon) – still images created manually or computerized; e.g. Disney films such as The Lion King (), Toy Story (), Shrek (), and Finding Nemo ( and )
v Biographical (biopic) – presents the life of a person; Ali (), Schindler’s List ( ) and Ghandi ()
v Documentary – solving an issue through systematic arrangement of facts; e.g. Fahrenheit 9/11 (), Hotel Rwanda () and Promises ()
v Experimental (avant-garde) – innovative introduction to check and expand audiences’ interests; e.g. Meshes of the Afternoon () and Parajanov: The Last Spring ( )
v Musical – songs and singing is manifested and usually originated from an actual play; e.g. The Sound of Music (), The Phantom of the Opera (), Fiddler on the Roof ( ) and Chicago ()
v Narrative – telling a story orally (voice-over); e.g. Big Fish ()
v Short – brief in time but similar to full-length movie. E.g. The Visitation ( )
Film and its Audience
Movies serve a millions of people all over the globe. They use it to escape from reality and momentarily forget the worries of daily life. The images shown in the film are “an astute appreciation of an important stylistic shift” ( 1998, xi).
The experience of watching a movie uninterrupted in a darkened auditorium has engrossed people since the medium’s earliest days. Movie watching is an all-encompassing experience, which has given films a special power in shaping cultural values (2002, 128). Movies become a part of people’s everyday life in more ways than they realize. For example, the manner they talk is loaded with movie metaphors. Forrest Gump’s (1994) quote/narration is considered as one of the most popular metaphors of modern film history – “Life was like a box of chocolates. You never know what you’re gonna get.”
People prefer to watch movies that suit their preference and choice. Preference, according to the dictionary is the “priority in the right to demand and receive satisfaction of an obligation”. Movie preference can be considered as the choice of movie to be watched regardless of its type. However, movie preference is dependent on the viewer’s personal standards and characteristics that may include their motive, perception, belief, behaviour, and personal observation, biases, and prejudices. It may also affect the overall condition of the viewing individual. They can be affective in some aspects like the viewer’s understanding, growth and maturity, learning, culture and traditions, and even perspective in life. Further, audiences who watch films differ basically in terms of age, gender, and economic considerations ( 2002, 149). It may also vary in behaviour, perception and cultural considerations.
The broad spectrum of the society covers a wide array of selective group of people from “nearly half the numbers who go to the movies today ages fewer than 25” ( 1990, 147). They are the current audience. Audience is an inadequate word to determine their characteristics and influences in film. Its etymology refers to the process of hearing. Like viewers, it focuses exclusively on a single perceptual channel ( 1991, 30).
There are three types of audience that may tend to analyse and involve their selves in the process of criticising the work. They are the potential audience – the people that are not yet penetrated by media; the paying audience – people who use media forms daily; and the audience reached – people who are reached by media voluntarily (1994, 299). Viewers may also be described as someone “who crave variety, surprise, suspense, and mental challenges ( 1999, 411). Most of the time, these viewers possess a “high level of education that tend to be more vulnerable to some types of media message that includes logical appeals” (2001, 381). Moreover, people in different habitat of meanings perceive a variety of implication in the same creative work and their perceptions of meaning tend to change as the time passes by – may it be in terms of symptomatic meanings or ideology (explicit or implicit) ( 1999, 452-53). These meanings are to some extent relative, but a film sets parameters to interpretations of such, and some of these interpretations are vulnerable by members of the audience.
All in all, the concept of film and its audience is very essential to every individual that consider film as a portrayal of reality. However, today’s film industry is facing several great challenges that are headed for radical transformation ( 1998, 119). Like the film itself, the industry and its people will undergo further dimensions in terms of technological approaches and developments.
Film and the Critics (Award-giving Bodies)
The film is a powerful agent of communication. It is important to watch films that are not just good to the eyes of ordinary viewers but it should be critically acclaimed or awarded. The presence of film critics and legitimate or credible award-giving bodies/mechanisms determine the effectiveness of the medium (1998, 119).
Films must be carefully, professionally, and intellectually as well as artistically interpreted but never destabilising the elements of its presentation and production. A good film does not only cater to the eyes of an ordinary viewer but also to the minds for mental challenge and assimilation.
With the development of the film industry and filmmaking as a whole introduced criticising/award-giving mechanisms. In this particular instance, critics from award-giving bodies are the proposed parameter. However, film critics evaluate films into academic (film scholars) and journalistic (media practitioners in newspaper and other media) approach. With reference to award-giving bodies and the distinction they are handling to particular films, it could be said that they are legitimate critics of film. Accordingly, there are around 350 award-giving bodies and film festivals worldwide. These range from national to international perspectives. Truly, ceremonies by these systems constitute a significant part of the world’s film history and development.
The evidence of internationalism of the film industry and the quality of films can be manifested through the presence of internationally acclaimed film festivals like Cannes, Sundance, Berlin, Venice, San Sebastian, New York, Moscow, Montreal, Cork, Chicago, and Mexico City (1997, 384). It provides a showcase form of films from every nation and meeting sites and market place for actors, directors, writers, and producers.
The international awards community also involves the prestigious Academy Award, most commonly known as Oscars of USA and the celebrated British Academy Film and Television Awards (BAFTA) in UK ( 1997, 384). Such festivals are more popular among the rest of other locally based institutions who serve the same purpose. However, with the notable presence of numerous award mechanisms in the global film market, the movie-going public ends up confusing one body from the other and they cannot automatically recall as to which group bestowed this or that recognition ( 1990, 94).
Generally, film analysis and criticism plays one principal purpose – to evaluate the overall quality of a particular film ( 1992, 4). In today’s contemporary standards, it could be theorised that the presence of award-giving institutions are helpful to viewers and film related people especially in determining the aspects that needs further development and the parts that need to be maintained. Award-giving bodies qualify or can also intensify the views of more legitimate and credible film critics.
Film Criticism and its Elements
The writing of film reviews in magazine, newspapers or television are often done in one of these reasons: to expound the details of acting, direction, music, plot, or theme that make the movie worth seeing or not, or to assess or evaluate the movie in terms of the reviewer’s critical standard. However, film essays are written to excite you to develop your ideas in relation to the movie. It is indeed an intelligent idea to bear in mind that movies operate on several levels (2006). First, movies offer employment and provide investment opportunities for the motion picture industry. Second, movies provides opportunities for artistic expression for directors, actors, cinematographers, musicians, and technicians, Third, movies provide entertainment and are good escapes from the routine of everyday life for the audience. And fourth, movies also provide an opportunity to discover the director’s view of life, of character, of action in the face of challenges for those who study artistic works in the field of humanities art, music, literature, religion, philosophy, drama, and drama. Moreover, studying movies allows us to explore our responses outside our initial immediate response ( 2006).
As stated earlier, film is evaluated into academic (film scholars) and journalistic (media practitioners in newspaper and other media) approaches. Academic film criticism literally serves the purposes of the approach. It is evident among film students and their mentors as well. It is use to further develop and discover the existing and revolutionary changes occurring or may occur in the said medium of communication and its related studies. Furthermore, scholar or academic analysis of film is dependent on the concept of film theories and are published in journals or up-market magazines ( 2000, 5-6). Film critics who are involved in the academic approach are sometimes affiliated with universities and other related institutions. On the other hand, journalistic film criticism is intended to people who work for newspapers, magazines, and the broadcast media in the purpose of making a review for news release. It is often opinionated and based on their personal attributes ( 2000, 5-8).
The debate on who among these two are the qualified film critics is still raving up to this time. Academic critics claim that they are the true film critics, while the journalistic critics are film reviewers (2000, 8). Despite this argument, the critics, regardless of their own inclination, creates an impact to the film industry. However, this is still a matter of qualification because there are some instances like in certain genres (action, horror, or comedy), the popularity of a certain film is not significantly affected by a critic’s general judgment of the film.
Like all mass media, film has two component parts that serve as basis in film analysis – the form and the content ( 1997, 207). The form of the film involves mainly the technical aspect such as camera manipulation, costume, location, etc. as well as the mechanical phenomena that make it work and go. The content, on the other hand, refers to the story, plot line, and cast of characters that deliver the message to the viewers (actors). These are the so-called elements of film and its production. Aside from the specified elements above, there are also factors to be considered such as the style or approach in analysis. These are based on the theoretical principles and application. Among these techniques are: semiotics, discourse analysis, content analysis, political economy or globalisation.
The following discussions will present the elements of film production and how to analyse them. There are also some examples that will qualify the ideas pertaining to the specified concept.
THEME – This is the basic idea of the film (1999, 198). It may touch on different aspects of life. It may also be subjective or objective in nature. Various films may be expressed through motif, metaphor, and symbols ( 1999, 198). For example, in Tom Hank’s Forrest Gump, the theme revolved in the narration “Life was like a box of chocolates. You never know what you’re gonna get.” With this, one can create a mental calculation on what to expect about the film. It may be supposed as a film about life, or its essence, or anything that a person can relate to the said statement. Historical, social, fantasy, comedy, etc. or simply the genres of films define the theme of the movie.
In analysing the theme of a film, it could be affirmed that the universality or the worldwide popularity, relevance, and intellectual or philosophical aspects must be considered. For instance, the series of The Lord of the Rings or The Matrix are films that created a lasting effect in any place that has covered by its screening. It could be said that even it is a fantasy and science-fiction in genres; it was still assimilated worldwide and received commendable reviews. Furthermore, film themes must be honest, sincere, and related to the plot (1999, 198).
Historical themes are present in the films Titanic (), Pearl Harbor (), Braveheart (), and Saving Private Ryan (). Social (cultural) themes are also depicted among these works: Philadelphia (), Gandhi (), and Brokeback Mountain (). There are many themes and at the same time films that fall to each of the particular subject matters. However, some of these films are considered as amalgamation of various themes. In the recent film history, several themes are combined in one way or the other in order to serve the diverse nature and demands of viewers and audiences worldwide.
PLOT – It is also known as the storyline. The plot tells how the story will flow throughout the running time of the film screening. Many film plots are much like each other but it changes in how the story is told and that makes the great difference ( 1999, 198). Sometimes, the writers rearrange the sequences of the events from the basics of the original plot.
There are two known ways to tell a story: chronological order and flashback. Chronological order or sometimes called chronology of events starts at a given point in time and the following straight through the end of the story (1999, 201). Among the best examples are ’s Amistad, E.T, Encounters of the Third Kind, Saving Private Ryan, and Artificial Intelligence (A.I). On the contrary, flashback is the return to the past from a present point in time. Chinese films are the suited examples as presented in the films The Joy Luck Club (), Raise the Red Lantern and The Road Home ( ). Worldwide films such as Citizen Kane (), Casablanca (), Schindler’s List (), The Silence of the Lambs (), and The Lord of the Rings Trilogy () are excellent models of chronological technique in plot.
ACTING/ACTORS – Acting and actors are one of the major and essential elements of film. Phillips noted that the actors are the ones who execute the whole story through the commands of the director. They play the big or small roles prescribed in the script. The native ability of the actor to imitate or impersonate a character is acting. Actors (and actresses) should be able to play their parts well that they almost become the characters they play. The best standard for good acting is the quality of the memory that it leaves (2003, 6). Conditions of good acting include proper casting, satisfactory make-up, intelligent understanding of the role, skilful picturing of the necessary emotions, naturalness of acting, skilful use of dialogue, and proper timing. In acting, there should be expressiveness of eyes and mouth. One must look interesting too. The actor must be capable of an intense degree of concentration and turning of emotions on and off for very short periods of time. Acting must seem totally natural, as if the actor is not acting at all ( 1997, 85). A film critic may use the said characteristics in evaluating a film in relation to the across.
Today, the actors (actresses) in the movie industry are not just there for the sake of art. Acting is now a profession that offers a lucrative opportunity. Notable actors (actresses) like Tom Hanks (Saving Private Ryan, Forrest Gump), Julia Roberts (Pretty Woman, Erin Brockovich), Tom Cruise (Mission Impossible, Minority Report), Catherine Zeta-Jones (Chicago, The Mask of Zorro), and other continuously maintain the glitz and blitz of the film industry especially in Hollywood. However, there are also local artists involved in various film productions in a certain location.
CINEMATOGRAPHY – It has something to do with visual presentation and photography of films ( 1999, 15). It includes composition and texture. Composition is the way in which the cinematographer decides to frame the subject in the rectangle of the screen to create a pleasing effect. The cameraman is also a major player to the film’s cinematographic exhibition. The movement of camera as well as the angles used will greatly influence the presentations of scenes. Texture is the surface area, which appears rough or smooth, soft or hard. Because film is a vision medium, the viewer as well as the critic thinks that the texture is not perceived yet he/she can tell when a surface is rough, hard, sandy, etc. by way the light creates and reflects shadows. Like for example, most drama films exude soft textures as evident to the films The Godfather and Sunset Boulevard. The use of colour in the film can create various moods, feelings, and experiences. Colour is used in the film to suggest the tone or the atmosphere of the time and place in which the drama is acted out. It can also carry a symbolic association. Utilising different camera shots and angles will add to more effective cinematography. In evaluating effective cinematography, the cinematographer must take the composition, camera movement (angle/shot), framing, photography, and colour, and texture into details and consideration. The unity of elements mentioned is taken first at hand.
LIGHTING – On the other hand, lighting contributes to the visual aspects of the film. It is actually a related element of the cinematography. Generally, it helps in the emphasis, contrast and intensity of situation of any scene – may it be dramatic, terrifying, subtle, etc. The most important factors in lighting are intensity, colour, and pattern. Specifically, high-key and low-key lighting are types of lighting techniques. It reinforces the cinematographic artistry. Most of the time, the cinematographer and lighting director work hand in hand to fuse the two related aspects. Some other factors to be considered in lighting are: illumination, form, focus, mood, location and time of day, theme and plot, and selective visibility ( 1999, 68-70). To evaluate the lighting element, considerations on the type or theme of the film will greatly help. For example, a horror film (e.g. Dracula) is always dark, low-keyed and selective. Most critics evaluate lighting in relation to the application and coordination with the elements of cinematography.
SOUND – The well-designed source of necessary information and idea is the sound. It can be expressive of emotions and moods and at the same time symbolic. Sound is classified into three aspects: sound effects (SFX), music, and spoken dialogue ( 1999, 193-194). SFX gives a scene a feeling of authenticity; the pitch, volume, and tempo of sound effects can strongly affect the responses to any given noise. Music, both real and unreal is used because it affects emotions involving more deeply to the viewer. It suggest mood or spirit, locale, classes or ethnic groups, foreshadowing, control emotional shifts within a scene, produce ironic contrast, characterizations through musical motifs, and underline speech especially dialogues. The spoken language is the most economical and precise way of conveying information in film. It reveals class, education and cultural bias. It may be dialogue or narration. Dialogue must express what is necessary to the situation and does not repeat what the visual image has already shown. It functions as a developer in characterization, dramatic situation and sharpens the expressiveness of the image. Narration, on the other hand, is the process by which the plot presents story information to the spectator. A narrator does it. The narrator could be a character narrator – part of the story or may be a non-character narrator – an anonymous voice-over. Narrations aid to describe or explain images, paint a pictorial action comment on the film’s content. Sound must not detract the film instead make it more real. It must not also interrupt.
PRODUCTION DESIGN – As the film production begins, the production design comes in (1998, 24). With constant communication and instruction from the director, the production designer plans the set, costumes as well as make-ups. The production design is centred into the art aspect of the film. There are several departments that mainly work out the plans for the entire film visual appearance. In a common situation, the production design consists mainly of the production designer, costume designer, location manager, art director, set decorator, prop master, and make-up artist. The actions of the said individuals are related mainly on the genre of the film being made. Evaluating the effectiveness of production design largely depends on the contribution it made in the totality of the finished product. Among the most notable production designers are: (The Lord of the Rings trilogy) and (Harry Potter series).
EDITING – Editing is one of the most important and significant steps in the making of the film. Phillips reiterated that the editing must not be noticeable, at least to the point where viewers try to notice scenes changing more than the overall film (165). Film editors must consider the smooth flow of the story from beginning to end. The editing helps the viewers understand the theme, plot, and other components of the film. Film critics particularly observe the manner in which film are edited. The essence of editing is the unified the series of scenes, shots, and other essentialities of film production. An effective editing is measured through continuity and completeness. In film business, editing can make or break the performance of the film when released in the market. Meanwhile, analysing film by using the editing technique will depend on the structural foundations of the overall motives of the film itself.
DIRECTION – The direction is considered as the structural frame of the film. According to (1990), the director determines most of the vital visual elements like choice of shots, angles, lighting effects, filters optical effects, framing, composition, camera movements and editing is professional and knowledgeable to the basic and advance art of filming (228-230). A good director will strive for artistic perfection. This feeling does not come just from skill in the craft but from an internal sense that says what is right and wrong. A director envisions the entire finished film including sound and visual images even before the photography and recording begins. A good director posses the following qualities: knows a good story when s/he sees it, interested in the picture s/he is making, knows what the camera can do, cannot do, ought to do, and ought not to do, knows the art of story-telling, have the story well in mind and knows exactly what s/he is trying to picture on the screen, but able to convey his/her ideas to the players and inspire them with the desire to interpret the meaning properly, and know how to edit a picture in order to achieve the proper effects and unities. To evaluate a director, s/he must put all components of the film to work together. In film criticism, the director is the engineer of the whole project. The manner in which s/he interpreted the film will definitely qualify his/her directorial expertise. Film reviewers and critics are so particular in this element of film criticism.
Techniques in Film Criticism and Analysis
Film theories are the foundation in the development of concise and systematic concepts applicable in analysing film and film studies as a whole. Aside from the aforementioned discussion relative to film analysis, the following are also techniques that are used in analysing/criticising films.
SEMIOTICS
Basically, semiotics (or semiology) is the usage of signs and symbols to decipher meaning and how it is understood (2002, 17). Semiotics could be generalized ‘visual signs’. They are often interpreted in various manners. Ranging from objective to subjective, cultural and historical, societal and universal, moral and spiritual, signs and symbols present in film are interpreted diversely by means of semiotic analysis.
To illustrate a semiotic approach in film analysis, The Joy Luck Club movie will be used. There are significant signs worthy of discussion and semiotic analysis present in film. In the beginning, they are all playing mah-jong. Objectively, it is a game of skill, intelligence, calculation and luck. When analysed subjectively, mah-jong creates different views. For instance, it could be assumed that mah-jong is the fate of the characters. They all search for the realization of their beings, personal experiences, consequences, conditions, and even the future ahead of them. They all have their own personal struggles for the search of the ultimately most acceptable feeling of a mother to a daughter and a daughter to her mother.
There are numerous noteworthy things and signs creditable of semiotic discussion in the film. They all possess unique interpretation depending on the belief of a critic or viewer. The universality of emotion present in the film is undeniably influential to the audience. Some critics consider The Joy Luck Club as a feminist film. By using the signs present in the film, mental associations are created among the viewers. The role of signs and symbols in semiotics define the interpretational possibilities of every intellectual effort of film analysis. Critics vary in views but the main idea as reflected by the sign or symbol will determine the reality out of personal interpretations. In reference to the film’s totality, the semiotic meaning of the sign is embedded together with the whole plot of the film. Most film scholar work on semiotics in relation to sciences such as anthropology, philosophy, psychology, and more. Semiotic analysis usually relies on how signs or symbols are transmitted from the medium to the receiver.
PSYCHOANALYSIS
Emerging as a new-fangled area in film analysis, psychoanalysis is a complicated system of inquiry. This technique is rooted to psychological theories and methods established by . Psychoanalysis in film seeks to expound associations among unconscious components of viewer’s mental processes (2001, 1). Additionally, this method is done in a systematic way through a process of tracing out associations. ’s study entitled illustrated how psychoanalysis is applied in film. Her study is a comprehensive example on how to analyse a film using the said technique. However, she indicated that “film theorists have rightly argued for a cultural affinity between film and psychoanalysis, and reading film through the lens of Freudian theory has become a critical orthodoxy in film studies” (1).
In analysing films using the psychoanalysis, critics must have a broad background on the fundamentals of psychology and its underlying principles. As stated earlier, this system of inquiry is among the most complicated yet most challenging area to work into. Psychoanalysis in film is usually applicable to psychology related individuals who pursue a higher degree of academic expertise. Most of the time, films are used as a means to interpret concepts of psychology that are evident in the film and its whole presentation. Film critics who venture in this technique are affiliated to certain universities or institutions specializing in the said area. Today, the various models in psychoanalysis are used in other areas of application.
DISCOURSE ANALYSIS
Discourse refers to the way in which texts are enunciated ( 2000, 87). This term is used to replace the ‘language’. Hayward states that cinematic discourse differs from that of a novel or a play because it tells the story through image and sound. Discourse also refers to the social process of making sense of and reproducing reality, and thereby of fixing meanings. Cinematic discourse reproduces ‘reality’ and tells stories such as love and marriage, war and peace, and so on. Thus, discourse analysis (DA) is the approach used in analysing language.
Analyzing film by using the discourse method is dealing with the rhetoric used in the film. It has been established that DA is taken up in subjects of linguistics, anthropology, sociology, and social psychology. In films, evaluating intertexuality is bounded in the film’s genre (1997, 38). Film scholars as well as critics must deal with the “law of genre” in film DA. DA is focused on the use of language (spoken/written) in films. As an example, the film’s version of Shakespeare’s Romeo and Juliet is regarded as a scholar field for figurative interpretation of words as presented in the milieu and period of the story. DA offers a challenging area on how to analyse a film. Today, film critics base their analyses on the basic law of linguistics in relation to the intended meaning. Ordinary viewers also notice the importance of discourse in a certain film. For instance, the dialogues of the characters are quoted and often associated or create a feeling or reaction. Jerry Maguire’s “You complete me!” resulted to various interpretations when taken on the perspective of DA.
CONTENT ANALYSIS
Generally, content analysis (CA) or textual analysis deals with the subject of communication content. Film, as a form of communication applies CA in areas of images and sounds. ’s “Who says what, to whom, why, to what extent and with what effect?” is the main parameter of content analysis.
In film content analysis, the characteristics of messages and images are objectively and systematically identified and specified (1990, 4). To analyse a film using this approach, film critics might follow the process suggested by (2004). The following questions must be answered in order to make a comprehensive content analysis.
Which data are analyzed?
How are they defined?
What is the population from which they are drawn?
What is the context relative to which the data are analyzed?
What are the boundaries of the analysis?
What is the target of the inferences?
After answering the aforementioned questions, there is a need to categorise or classify the concepts being elicited or studied. In some instances, content analysis is more qualitative in nature. The manifestations of embedded meaning in the content of films must be identified in order to provide an effective analysis. The film Citizen Kane is very much recommended for film criticism beginners using qualitative content analysis.
POLITICAL ECONOMY (MARXISM)
has contributed a lot in the understanding sciences. Until today his basic theory on economic life and social life are still relevant. theory focuses more on the struggle between those who have and those who have not ( 1982). Films when viewed under the principles of implies that media (film) is basically a monopoly of those well-off few. Thus, they enjoy the illusion of autonomy, are socialized and internalized the norms of their society. Media primarily exists to serve the interests of the rich (, 1982).
Political economy in film analysis views film contents in connection to the perspective of social and political ideologies. Film is known to serve information bank where people around the world can derive knowledge and facts, learn and enhance imagination, broaden reasoning, and finally, aid their decision-making. At present, the modern film “produce and circulate meaning in the society” ( 2002) within the context of nationality and cultural heritage, religion, regional identities, societal classes, ethnic and minority rituals, family values and self-actualization. Such reality brings about endless debate of what is right or wrong, just or unfair, even real or unreal. Having wide variety of meanings in the society is a fact that maintains these debates, but to include the modernization of media simply aggravates the inherent confusion. Other films that depict reality encompassing social, political and economic conflicts across culture and classes are ways of critically analyzing films in the context of the theories in political economy.
For example, the themes of alienation, sexual frustration, failure of communication and the individual’s anguish at personal situation that had run through serious novels and dramas since the beginning of the twentieth century had finally found their way into the theatrical cinema (, 1991). The Fiddler on the Roof could be best evaluated using this technique due to that fact that it tackles the Jewish status in Russia.
GLOBALISATION
Globalisation in its literal sense is a social change, an increase in connections among societies and their elements due to, among others, the explosive evolution of transport and communication technologies ( 1996, 3). The term is applied to many social, cultural, commercial and economic activities. Depending on the context it can mean, it can be: (a) closer contact between different parts of the world (globalisation of the world, global village), with increasing possibilities of personal exchange and mutual understanding between “world citizens”, (b) or (economic globalisation), free trade and increasing relations among members of an industry in different parts of the world ( 2000, 8).
Globalisation technique in film analysis is the application of the concepts related to globalisation. This technique is general in scope and offers a wide range of application. Thus, film critics must determine the extent of application of the concepts of globalisation in connection to the content and interpretation of film’s real meaning. Modern film critics today ideally use globalisation approach to persuade viewers of different origins to watch a specified movie. The universal applicability of the film’s theme is the basic element of analysis.
Earning a Box Office
The film itself can define its ability to break box-office records. However, there are several factors to consider in relation to this goal. Among said factors are the essential elements of the film namely the theme, plot, characters, and so on. External conditions like period of time upon release, cultural considerations, targeted audience, and even the manner of presentation or the type of the film will determine the ability to break box-office. The measurement of film’s effect to the box office could be done on the first release as well as the last day of showing in theatres. Worldwide box office records today are published in international and national newspapers and the Internet.
Film, being an instrument for communication, education, and entertainment, needs to be evaluated. Having studied the facts, approaches and concepts of film and its analysis, it could be concluded that film analysis can be done in various manners as presented above. Considering the elements of film production as the main framework in analysis, film critics can come up with excellent interpretation. However, with the diversity of ideologies and perspective, film critics as well as reviewers must practice objectivity at all times.
Generally, the crucial theme in film criticism is the view that film acts largely as a social mirror or the externalization of human life. The film industry will continuously develop in the future. Regardless of circumstances and other affecting factors, the interest of people in film and its related aspect will keep the flame in this for of art burning. Thus, film analysis and criticism will continue to flourish as a field of research.
References
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