Discuss the issues involved when using quantitative and qualitative methodologies in research

FIRST PART

 

Discuss the issues involved when using quantitative and qualitative methodologies in research

 

INTRODUCTION

          Although research is important in such investigative activities, there is no consensus in literature on how it should be defined. Ideally, good reason can possibly that research mean many things to diverse people such as those part in healthcare and clinical milieu as such qualitative and quantitative methods used in research do imply the process of enquiry and investigation that has been systematic and methodical towards better increase in knowledge and expertise in such field. Thus, such qualitative and quantitative research do amicably reach the stage wherein the demand of its validation has allow usage of ideal principle as found into real world situation in refining as well as integrating crucial search points as it can require operational essence for instance, appropriate scientific methods to be used, such evidence be gathered.

 

 

 

          Thus, certain involved research in qualitative and quantitative notion may be conducted in spirit of information inquiry which rely on certain facts as well as experiences, concepts, hypotheses also such principles and laws constituting better language of research posits that enables such precision in employing of communication channels as deemed important to such formation of adaptable outcomes in those methodologies qualitatively and quantitatively assessed. Moreover, the point of understanding how research methodology is of functional approach should be considered as it do refer to procedural framework in which qualitative as well as quantitative research is being conducted at the right perspective (Cited from, Remenyi et al., 1998). Thus, a lot of underlying factors to be considered when choosing appropriate research methodology for such type of method utilization as it must be investigated and researched with ample questions serving as core drivers (Cited from, Remenyi et al., 1998).

DISCUSSION

Quantitative and qualitative methodology

          Research may be categorised into two types, the qualitative and quantitative, as it concentrate on observations to express reality and attempts to describe events and or people in natural situations as the quantitative approach grows out of strong academic tradition that places considerable trust that represent opinions or concepts. Thus, the exact constitution of the two methodologies varies somewhat from author to author or is defined with varying degrees of specificity, there is substantial agreement about the fundamental antinomies and their practical implications for the conduct of research.

Defining and justifying qualitative research

          Furthermore, qualitative research is conducted through an intense and prolonged contact with “field” or life situation and that, reflective of everyday life of individuals, groups, societies and organisations (Cited from, Miles and Huberman, 1994). In some senses, research data are qualitative; referring to such issues relating to factual situations (Cited from, Berg, 1989, as cited in Miles and Huberman, 1994). Then, one good feature of qualitative data is their richness and holism, with strong potential for revealing complexity within descriptions that are nested in real context and have truth and such qualitative data are collected over period makes it powerful for studying certain process it involves.

 

 

 

Defining and justifying quantitative research

          In addition, quantitative research designs are characterised by assumption that human behaviour can be explained by what may be termed social facts which can be investigated by methodologies that utilize deductive logic of natural science (Cited from, Horna, 1994). The process is directed towards the development of testable hypotheses and theory which are generalisable across settings and the methodology is more concerned with how complex description of specific situations under study will evolve. Aside, there implies quantitative philosophy being the extreme of empiricism according to which theories are not only justified in extent as verified but also by enough application of facts as duly acquired. There is branch of thought which tried to find out the origins, justifications and progress of knowledge through observation, but is considered to have meaning if being derived well (Cited from, Chalmers, 1976). Thus, quantitative studies do search for distinguished elements as well as empirical boundary there is intending to measure how much research it does or how often the research has been considered (Cited from, Nau, 1995).

 

 

          Also, there is strength in quantitative research design as concerned with defining some epistemological methodology as it will determine truth-value of propositions and allows flexibility in treating data, like in ways related to comparative and statistical analysis and the repeatability of data collection in verifying the content structure of reliability. The weaknesses of quantitative research can possibly lie mainly in their failure to ascertain deeper underlying meanings and explanations even when data are significant and valid. Quantitative research is tough in measuring variables such as quantitative assumption regarding construction process capability in that process reduced to set of variables which are somehow equivalent across construction projects, persons involved and across situations and when the measurement is one of the focuses of the research, then quantitative approach may be justified. Although quantitative methods can be used to measure such factors, their appropriateness in explaining them in depth is more limited. A further weakness in quantitative approaches lie in tendencies to take snapshot of situation, that is to measure variables at specific moment in time and that several aspects might be affected by temporal changes which cannot be identified within single investigative option.

 

 

          Aside, there can be ways adopted in triangulation involved in combination of methodologies in research phenomenon as the assumption in triangulation is that the effectiveness of triangulation rests on the premise that the weaknesses in each single method will be compensated by the counter-balancing strengths of another. It does denotes reference to combination of research methods and employing of qualitative and quantitative techniques together which is powerful for gaining outcomes and insights that such as assisting in making good conclusion (Cited from, Fellows and Liu, 1997).

 

Triangulation of qualitative data

 

          The combination of methodologies can then focus on relevant strengths as researcher should aim to achieve situation wherein blending qualitative and quantitative methods of research can produce final product which can highlight significant contributions (Cited from, Nau, 1995) and where qualitative data can support explicitly what is meant by quantitative research respectively (Cited from, Jayaratne, 1993).

Tactics for research

          Besides the qualitative and quantitative and the positivistic-phenomenological classifications, there are many different ways of describing research approaches and methods. There is limitless number of research tactics and variations, many of which have been borrowed from other disciplines and some believe that research in the areas is not well in scientific sanctions. As the qualitative research may be conducted in dozens of ways, Smith (Cited from, 1992) does observed, field methods, qualitative inquiry, participant observation, case study and responsive evaluation have been basically identical to understand how and why they come to have better perspective.

 

 

Philosophical relationships

As Galliers (Cited from, 1992, as cited in Remenyi et al., 1998) provide list of approaches and important to note that research tactics listed can be used as either quantitative or qualitative devices.

 

          Several analyses of quantitative data concern searching the data patterns of various types and hypothetical relationships are established. Many quantitative approaches are subject to particular analytical techniques with prescribed tests, such as discourse analysis as well as comparisons and hierarchies are duly evaluated and examined and that such quantitative data are suitable for statistical interpretation and the analysing are to provide information about variables and relationships in between possibly being combined with theory and literature in such assimilation of data analysis.

Components of Data Analysis

 

 

Assessment

          Thus, review of research methods will be incomplete without considering the fundamental issues relating to evaluation of research outcomes. In many respects an evaluation is focused on measures to counteract the weaknesses inherent in the particular research strategy chosen to carry out piece of research (Cited from, Then, 1996) as such debate is rooted in philosophical differences about the nature of reality and takes the form of qualitative versus quantitative methods amiably so, the value of any research stems from validity of results and the extent of contribution to the body of knowledge undertaken.

CONCLUSION

          There is no uniquely best approach to research, either in the natural world or in the BE in particular and the best that can be done is to describe the ways in which research is carried out in variety of situations. Therefore, understanding of fundamental issues pertaining to different types of research typologies is important in such qualitative and quantitative options that can be likely to affect the ideal form of research process, as the success of study project will depend on possible robustness of strategy applied in completing and realizing research studies.

SECOND PART

Several Related Research on “sitting balance training in children with cerebral palsy”

 

Related Research No. 1

(Note: Only Abstract)

Effect of balance training on muscle activity used in recovery of stability in children with cerebral palsy: a pilot study.

by: M Woollacott, A Shumway-Cook, S Hutchinson, M Ciol, R Price, D Kartin

Dev Med Child Neurol, Vol. 47, No. 7. (July 2005), pp. 455-461.

 

“This study explored possible neural mechanisms that contribute to improvements in balance control produced by reactive balance training in children with cerebral palsy (CP). Six children with CP (four males, two females; mean age 9y 4mo), two with spastic hemiplegia (Gross Motor Function Classification System [GMFCS] level I) and four with spastic diplegia (GMFCS level II,) were given 5 days of intensive training in reactive balance control (100 perturbations per day on a moveable force platform). Surface electromyography was used to characterize changes in neuromuscular responses pretraining, immediately posttraining, and 1 month posttraining. Training in reactive balance control resulted in improvements in directional specificity of responses (a basic level of response organization) and other spatial/temporal characteristics including: (1) faster activation of muscle contraction after training, allowing children to recover stability faster; (2) emergence of a distal-proximal muscle sequence; and (3) improved ability to modulate the amplitude of muscle activity (increased amplitude of agonist and decreased amplitude of antagonist, reducing coactivation). Each child with spastic hemiplegia or diplegia showed a different combination of factors that contributed to improved performance; the level of change in neural factors depended on the severity of involvement of the child: hemiplegia vs diplegia, and level of involvement within each diagnostic category”.

 

Related Research No. 2

(Note: Only Abstract)

Effect of balance training on recovery of stability in children with cerebral palsy.

by: A Shumway-Cook, S Hutchinson, D Kartin, R Price, M Woollacott

Dev Med Child Neurol, Vol. 45, No. 9. (September 2003), pp. 591-602.

“This study examined the effect of massed practice in balance recovery of stability in six children (four males, two females; mean age 9 years 2 months, SD 2 years, range 7 years 5 months to 12 years 11 months) with cerebral palsy (CP). Four children were diagnosed with spastic diplegia (Gross Motor Function Classification System [GMFCS] level II) and two with spastic hemiplegia (GMFCS level I). A single-subject, multiple-baseline experimental design involving three pairs of children matched for diagnosis was used. A moveable forceplate system was used to test and train reactive balance control. Area per second (i.e. area covered by the center of pressure over a one second period) and time to stabilization from center of pressure measures were calculated following perturbations. The intervention phase consisted of massed practice on the moving platform (100 perturbations/day for 5 days). Analysis included hierarchical linear modeling and a repeated measures ANOVA. All children demonstrated a significant improvement in their ability to recover stability as demonstrated by reduced center of pressure area and time to stabilization following training. These improvements were still present 30 days following completion of training. Results suggest that postural control mechanisms in school-age children (7 to 13 years) with CP are modifiable”.

Related Research No. 3

Orthotic Management of Children with Cerebral Palsy Research done by: Christopher Morris

By definition, the impairment known as cerebral palsy (CP) describes damage to the immature brain resulting in problems with balance, coordination, and movement. Stability in any position of lying, sitting, or standing requires consideration of both intrinsic and extrinsic factors. Intrinsic stability involves controlling the position of the center of mass within the body. Extrinsic stability involves maintaining the center of mass within the supporting area. Common training targets include encouraging head control by providing trunk stability or using wrist orthoses to facilitate manual dexterity when grasping objects.

Thus, prestanding children will spend all their time in either lying or sitting postures. Based on earlier work to develop systematic assessment protocols, the Chailey scales of ‘levels of ability’ in lying, sitting and standing provide another framework for assessing the progress of children with postural impairments.16 Thus, spending much of their time sitting and are therefore predisposed to contractures of the muscles of the lower limb. Many of the major muscles around the hip, knee, and ankle actually cross two joints. For instance, the major bulk of the calf muscle is the gastrocnemius, which crosses both the ankle and knee. To provide an efficient stretch of the gastrocnemius, preventing plantar flexion must be augmented with an orthosis to extend the knee.

 

 

 

 

 

 

Related Research No. 4

Diplegic Cerebral Palsy: Case Study

Research Done by: Ferreira M.A; Viljoen J.M.; Wentzel GJ and Mothabeng D.J.

 

Balance is the process by which postural stability is maintained and Cerebral Palsy is used to describe motor disorders resulting from pre-natal developmental abnormalities or peri-natal or post-natal central nervous system damage occurring before the age of five years and characterised by impaired voluntary movement (Cited from, Berkow, Fletcher and Beers, 1992). 

Method

This study received approval from the Ethical Committee of the University of Pretoria, Republic of South Africa, and was given the approval number S90/2002, after amendments were made.

Study Design

The single subject research design is divided into phases that define sequential introduction of intervention and withdrawal of intervention, in a pre-determined, randomized order. Each participant is evaluated before and after each phase.  The purpose of non-treatment phases in the single subject research designs is to determine whether the effects of the intervention used in the particular project are long or short term.

Study Population

Two subjects (subject A and subject B) affected by diplegic cerebral palsy participated in this study.  The subjects were ten and twelve years of age.  Informed consent was acquired from the subjects’ parents.  The subjects acted as their own control and therefore the single subject research design was applicable.

Measurements

This study employed quantitative as well as qualitative measures.  Quantitative measures are of scientific value whereas qualitative measures only help the researcher to get a broader idea of the possible effects of the intervention (Cited from, DePauw 1986, as cited in Teichmann Engel, 1994). Cratty (Cited from, 1967) formulated the scale that was used to quantitatively evaluate the subjects. 

The researchers did not receive responses from the subjects’ parents, the qualitative evaluation on the behavioral changes of the subjects relied solely on the researchers’ observations. Although qualitative research is non-scientific and subjective, the literature found emphasises the importance of this type of research when investigating the psychological effects of Equi-therapy. 

Results

The subjects’ balance were evaluated by means of the Cratty scale (Cited from, 1967), regular evaluation made it possible to not only compare overall balance performance, but also the performance over the project period.

Discussion

According to the overall results of this study, Equi-therapy had a positive effect on poor balance in the two children who are affected by diplegic cerebral palsy.  Similar positive results were reported by Biery and Kauffman (Cited from, 1989) who studied the effects of Equi-therapy on poor balance in children affected by cerebral palsy.  The important difference between the study done by Biery et al (Cited from, 1989) and the current study, is that the individuals who participated in the study by Biery et al (Cited from, 1989) received Equi-therapy once week over period of twenty-four weeks, uninterrupted; while the current project time was divided into treatment phases and non-treatment phases. 

 

Limitation and Recommendation

The researchers noticed changes in the subjects’ postures during the project period.  Formal research has to be done on the effects of Equi-therapy on posture in children affected by cerebral palsy, to confirm the observations made by the researchers of the current study.  Finally, it is recommended that research be done on the effects of Equi-therapy on children affected by other conditions within cerebral palsy, such as those suffering from athetoid and ataxic cerebral palsy.

Conclusion

Therefore, the alternate hypothesis that Equi-therapy would result in a clinically significant improvement in balance in standing and quadruped stance in children, between the ages of nine and fourteen, affected by diplegic cerebral palsy, measured by means of the Cratty scale was proven applicable.  Through quantitative and qualitative measurements, positive results were obtained in the subjects’ balance and behavior, after ten-week trial. 

 

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Words: 2500 excluding diagrams, in-text citations, reference and bibliography

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Related Research No. 3

CHRISTOPHER MORRIS, MSc, SR Orth, is a Principal Orthotist at the Nuffield Orthapaedic Centre NHS Trust; and a Graduate Student with the Nuffield Department of Clinical Medicine, University of Oxford, affiliated with the National Perinatal Epidemiology Unit, Oxford, UK. 2002 American Academy of Orthotists and Prosthetists.

Endnotes/Citation:

Evans C, Gowland C, Rosebaum P. The effectiveness of orthoses for children with cerebral palsy [abstract]. Dev Med Child Neurol. 1994;36(Suppl. 70):26-27.

Freedman B. Equipoise and the ethics of clinical research. N Engl J Med. 1987;317:141-145.

Hallet R, Hare N, Milner AD. Description and evaluation of an assessment form. Physiotherapy. 1987;73:220-225.

McConachie HR. Conceptual frameworks in evaluation of multidisciplinary services for children with disabilities. Child Care Health Dev. 1999;25:101-113.

Poutney T, Mulcahy C, Clarke S, Green E. The Chailey Approach to Postural Management. Birmingham, UK: Active Design Ltd.; 2000.

Yusuf S, Collins R, Peto R. Why do we need some large, simple randomized trials? Stat Med. 1984;3:409-422.

 

Related Research No. 4

The study was done at South African Therapeutic Riding Association under the supervision of the Author (Engela Young) in the year 2002.This research has been submitted in partial fulfillment of the degree B.Phys.T (University of Pretoria) by coursework and research report.

Research conducted by: Ferreira M.A. (University of Pretoria); Viljoen J.M. (University of Pretoria); Wentzel GJ (University of Pretoria); Mothabeng D.J. (B.Sc. Phys. Medunsa), (M. Phys.T. (UP), (D.Ti. (UP)

 

 

REFERENCES

Berg, B. (1995), Qualitative Research Methods for the Social Sciences, Allyn & Bacon, London

Berkow, R., Fletcher, A.J. & Beers, M.H. (Eds.)  1992. The Merck Manual of Diagnosis and Therapy.  Merck Research Laboratories: New Jersey.

Biery, J.B. & Kauffman, N.  1989.  The Effects of Therapeutic Horseback Riding on Balance.  Adapted Physical Activity Quarterly 6: 221-229.    

Chalmers, A (1976), What is This Thing Called Science?, Open University Press, Buckingham

Cratty, B.J.  1967.  Movement Behaviour and Motor Learning.  Lea & Febriger: Philadelphia.

Fellows, R, Liu, A (1997), Research Methods for Construction, Blackwell Science Limited, Oxford

Horna, J (1994), The Study of Leisure, Oxford University Press, Oxford

Jayaratne, T (1993), “Quantitative methodology and feminist research”, in Hammersley, M (Eds),Social Research: Philosophy, Policies and Practice, Sage, London

Miles, M.B, Huberman, A.M. (1994), Qualitative Data Analysis, Sage Publications, Thousand Oaks, CA

Nau, D (1995), “Mixing methodologies: can bimodal research be a viable post-positivist tool?”, The Qualitative Report, online serial, www.nova.edu/ssss/QR/QR2-3/nau.html, Vol. 2 No.3

Remenyi, D, Williams, B, Money, A, Swartz, E (1998), Doing Research in Business and Management, Sage Publications, London

Smith, L.M (1992), “Ethnography”, in Alkin, M.C (Eds),Encyclopaedia of Educational Research, Macmillan, New York, NY., Vol. 2

Teichmann Engel, B. (Ed.)  1994.  Therapeutic Riding Programs: Instruction and Rehabilitation. A Handbook for Instructors and Therapists.  Barbara Engel Therapy Services.

Then, D.S (1996), “A study of organisational response to the management of operational property assets and facilities support services as a business resource – real estate asset management”, Heriot-Watt University, Edinburgh., unpublished thesis

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