Research Topics

THE NATURE OF MICROFINANCE PRODUCTS AND THEIR IMPACT ON CUSTOMER LOYALTY IN MICROFINANCE

THE NATURE OF MICROFINANCE PRODUCTS AND THEIR IMPACT ON CUSTOMER LOYALTY IN MICROFINANCE Designing optimal incentives for credit agents has become a major concern for microfinance institutions (MFIs). The existing literature on microfinance has focused almost exclusively on incentive issues between borrowers and lenders. Yet, as credit agents play a critical role in ensuring the success of the MFIs they are working for, they must also be provided with adequate incentives. Without those, they may exert insufficient effort to learn about potential borrowers’ characteristics, they may under-report repayments, and they may mis-represent the information they have obtained on potential borrowers. The issue is particularly acute in pro-poor MFIs. Many pro-poor MFIs derive from non-governmental organizations and have non-profit status. Their objective is to give access to credit to very poor individuals with viable projects. There has, however, been a widely noted ‘mission drift’ among these MFIs as they increasingly tend to work with clients that are less poor, a drift that has accelerated with rising competition from for-profit MFIs (Weiss and Montgomery, 2005). This has led donors supporting these institutions in search for mechanisms that can induce MFIs to resist mission drift. This paper explores how to design credit agent incentives to achieve this result. If less-poor borrowers reimburse more on average than very poor borrowers, a pro-poor MFI must strike a balance between financial viability and the selection of very poor borrowers. It wants to lend to an optimal mix of very poor and less-poor borrowers selected among individuals with high ability and most likely to repay. The higher expected repayment rate with less-poor borrowers is used to cross-subsidize loans to very poor individuals, while meeting the zero profit constraint. But incentives for credit agents to select high-ability individuals then tend to conflict with incentives to select very poor individuals, who repay less. For these MFIs, repayment is an incomplete measure of an agent’s performance. To induce search for information on simultaneously poverty levels and ability, one would need to use incentive schemes that are non-monotonous in repayment. But such schemes would give the agent incentives to hide, and possibly withhold, repayment. Observing another variable correlated with wealth is thus necessary. This requires costly audits. To meet their objectives, pro-poor MFIs thus have to bear the additional cost of an audit generating signals on the true type of borrowers; by contrast to for-profit MFIs that bear no cost in providing incentives to their credit agents. Audits are, however, not always feasible. In contexts where the cost of finding information on wealth is high, a pro-poor MFI will choose to offer incentives based only on repayment performance, as would a for-profit MFI. An important assumption in our analysis is that wealth and repayment are positively correlated. If less poor borrowers were not more profitable to the lender than the very poor, there fundamentally would be no tension between the outreach objective of the MFI and the viability constraint. There would be no possibility for cross subsidization, and lending to the poor would have to be viable. This would lead to the particular case in which a pro-poor MFI would always lend only to very poor borrowers, and only to very poor borrowers of high ability if acquiring information on ability is not too costly.1 Yet a positive correlation is more plausible2, at least in areas where mission drift is a concern. A positive correlation arises when less poor borrowers have access to better education, better quality inputs and land, and better social capital that facilitate success in their activity. Empirically, Sharma and Zeller (1997) in Bangladesh, SEF (2003) in South Africa, and Zeller (1998) in Madagascar all find that repayment performance does increase with wealth — the very poor tend to invest in low-return activities and in poorly developed markets where environmental and economic shocks are frequent, while they have low ability to bear risk (Hulme, 2000). This positive correlation, and the conflict it creates between outreach and financial viability, is confirmed by a concern among practitioners that using repayment performance incentives for agents reinforces their drift towards less poor clients. Based on a global survey of microfinance institutions, McKim and Hugart (2005) report that 70% of the MFIs that implemented an incentive scheme acknowledged that it reduced focus on the target population. Another assumption made is that the agent is risk neutral with unlimited liability. This (admittedly special) case is particularly useful as it offers a clear benchmark: a for-profit MFI would bear no incentive cost due to delegation in this setting. Any cost borne by a pro-poor MFI stems exclusively from the interaction of the particular objective of a non-profit organization with internal incentives. If the agent was protected by limited liability or was risk averse, additional incentive costs would obviously arise but our main insights would hold.   References J. Weiss and H. Montgomery, Great expectations: microfinance and poverty reduction in Asia and Latin America, Oxford Development Studies 33 (3) (2005), pp. 391–416. M. Sharma and M. Zeller, Repayment performance in group based credit programs in Bangladesh: an empirical analysis, World Development 25 (10) (1997), pp. 1731–1742. SEF, Small Enterprise Fund, 2004 SEF, Small Enterprise Fund, Overview, 2003 (2004) www.sef.co.za/sef%20overview/more_about_sef.htm. M. Zeller, Determinants of repayment performance in credit groups: the role of program design, intra-group risk pooling, and social cohesion, Economic Development and Cultural Change 46 (3) (1998), pp. 599–620. D. Hulme, Is microdebt good for poor people? A note on the dark side of MicroFinance, Small Enterprise Development 11 (1) (2000), pp. 26–28. A. McKim and M. Hugart, Staff incentive schemes in practice: findings from a global survey of microfinance institutions, MicroFinance Network (2005) http://www.mfnetwork.org/working_groups/staff_incentives.html. MicroLINKS, 2008 MicroLINKS. 2008. Credit:ivythesis.typepad.com

THE NATURE OF MICROFINANCE PRODUCTS AND THEIR IMPACT ON CUSTOMER LOYALTY IN MICROFINANCE

THE NATURE OF MICROFINANCE PRODUCTS AND THEIR IMPACT ON CUSTOMER LOYALTY IN MICROFINANCE Designing optimal incentives for credit agents...

Community Health Nursing

COMMUNITY HEALTH   Community health nursing is a nursing approach that combines knowledge from the public health sciences with professional nursing theories to safeguard and improve the health of populations in the community. Community health nurses are faced with the challenge that is very different with that of nurses working in a health care delivery setting like a hospital.             Family-client relationships in the community health care setting are very diverse considering that the nurses will also care for clients from diverse backgrounds. A nurse should be able to learn how to identify the unique needs of individual clients. The most important theme to consider for a community nurse is to understand clients’ lives. Strong, caring relationships are established by the nurses with their clients and the families. This way, the nurse becomes able to advise, counsel, and teach effectively after being accepted into the client’s family and by understanding what makes the client unique. The nurse has to acquire a picture of the client’s life and once he or she is able to do that, interventions designed to promote health and prevent disease can be introduced.             In the usual health care delivery setting like a hospital, “knowing clients” is also emphasized. But the current health care environment within hospitals makes it difficult for a hospital nurse to really know their clients. Nurses in the hospitals care for many clients, and some clients are acutely ill, which reduces the time spent with a nurse and the client. There is no establishment of relationships like that in a community health setting. In community health care, case management is an important competency. It is the ability to establish an appropriate plan of care based on assessment of clients and families and to coordinate needed resources and services for the client’s well-being across a continuum of care. Generally, a community health nurse will assume the responsibility for the case management of multiple clients. The greatest challenge lies in coordinating the activities of multiple providers and payers, in different settings, throughout a client’s continuum of care. In the hospital setting, a senior nurse advises her nursing staff on specific nursing care issues, coordinates the referral of clients to services provided by other disciplines, ensures that client education has been implemented, and monitors the client’s progress through discharge. Aside from being the case manager, the community health nurse also serves a variety of roles: as a collaborator, an educator, a counselor, a client advocate, and as a change agent. In the hospital setting, the roles of the nurse is also varied but limited. Usually, in the hospital setting, there is a division of labor between the nurses. Some nurses may assume only a specific role.             Nursing interventions in the community setting includes prevention or reduction of the frequency of health care problems and concerns; assisting individuals in reducing factors that negatively affect their health and gaining skills; and increasing the amount of interaction with service providers and acceptance of resources. Competence as a community health nurse requires the ability to use interventions that take into account the broad social and political context in which problems of the community occur and are resolved.   Credit:ivythesis.typepad.com

Community Health Nursing

COMMUNITY HEALTH Community health nursing is a nursing approach that combines knowledge from the public health sciences with profess...

Juicy Red Tomato Company

This chapter discusses about how many people are being affected with this condition, framework of the acute needs of the patients, and the two most important acute needs of the patient. INTRODUCTION Total knee amputation is removing or cutting both lower parts by a surgery, with the induction of the regional anesthesia or general anesthesia. Mostly these surgical interventions performed because of gangrenous limbs and to those who have been infected damaged limbs. I choose a case of total knee amputation in which I have to know how many patients are being affected in this particular problem. From the result of the national survey in United Kingdom, that it come up to an average of 34.3 that the surgeon performed total knee amputation per year. As there are many cases in the hospital, I get to know how is this being manage and handle so that the patients needs are fulfill. Total knee amputation really needs attention and care to the nurses or to the health care providers who handle it. And as I have been exposed in orthopedic ward I come to choose this case based on the knowledge that I have learn and practiced. It is very much advantage on my part in studying this problem knowing that I am practicing in orthopaedic ward. Moreover I’ve come to realize that choosing this problem would greatly help me also to be more aware and be knowledgeable that by time that I may encounter this again in the field, I may have the confidence to handle the patient and know what are going to do.     Roper, Logan and Tierney 12 activities of daily living model The Roper-Logan-Tierney model for nursing was initially created as an education tool for ‘beginning nursing students and their teachers’ (Ropert et al 2000, p. 1). I choose this model the Roper, Logan and Tierney 12 activities of daily living model of nursing because this model emphasize the needs of the patients. It is primarily used for those students who are being practiced in variety of settings. This model had helped the student nurses to get related on to their needs on their different levels of education. Thus this model has also to do something with the nursing process and the medical practice. This model is not only used by registered nurses for planning but it also help to teach the families and aides on how to individualize the nursing care. With this model of Roper, Logan and Tierney helps the nursing to focus from an ill patients to a well patients. In a  such it also facilitating the health promotion nursing practice. Further more it is being used extensively within the United Kingdom and to all other countries as a framework for nursing care. This model enable us the students and also to the health care practitioners to apply.  This model views and guide the students nurses and as well as the instructor to apply in various settings. It is easy to understand, and the concepts are broad. In caring with patient having being a case of total knee amputation based on the model of Roper, Logan and Tierny that shows concepts on how to deal and care with the patient. Since this model really for the beginning student nurses we must study this model before jumping into a harder concept.   The Model of Living Five components of the model;  Activities of daily Living, Lifespan, Dependence/ Independence, Factors influencing the activities of daily living, Individuality of living. First, Activities of Daily Living, this focuses on what are the things we do usually, normally what we do in daily living.  There are twelve activities that are identified as a core of the model of living namely (Roper et al 2000); maintaining a safe environment, communicating, breathing, eating and drinking, eliminating, personal cleansing and dressing, controlling body temperature, mobilizing, working and playing, expressing sexuality, sleeping, dying. Each activity has different impact on our lives, although some of these don’t exist yet but some of it may have an important part. Second  the Lifespan, “ As a person moves along the lifespan there is continuous change and every aspect of living is influenced by the biological, psychological, socio-cultural, environmental and politico-economic circumstances encountered throughout the life. ( Roper et al, 1996, p. 23). Third is the,  Factors Influencing the Activity of Living, there are five factors; biological, psychological, socio-cultural, environmental and politico-economic. Fourth, Individuality of living , each person has its own way of living and has its own way  means of living. Different styles and approaches in every day living. Needs of the patient The needs of the patient when he came in the ward is  having or maintaining having a safe environment in which it is the most important aspect to care for the patient. To help the patients achieve it optimum health, to be more alive and so that in order he/she can perform the daily activities one of it must maintain a safe environment. Like preventing a patient from fall always put the side rails up to prevent falls, then washing hands before and after handling patients to prevent further diseases. Personal cleansing and dressing, since the wound of a total knee amputation is not totally heal, it needs a total care, standard precaution in handling the wound so that it may not contaminate. Position the patient in a comfortable way, and put some pillows on the affected side to elevate the leg. Keep the wound dry and clean, don’t let the bandages contaminated, wet or moist is the source of contamination.  Check the floor if there is some objects that might the patient cause an injury. And also clean environment helps the patient to be more relax and comfortable. In maslow’s hierarchy of needs in which eating, drinking, breathing, shelter belongs in the physiological needs. These needs are eating and drinking as well as breathing, are essentials in life in order to sustain and maintain a body’s homeostasis. We need to eat foods and drink to have a good health and to correct balance. A lot of people are dying because of starvation they cant afford to buy foods. To function our body well we must also comply the needs of our body. Controlling the body temperature is also important, if a patient cannot able to control his/her temperature it may lead to serious condition that may lead to trauma or death. Mobilizing is one great aspect in helping client with total knee amputation, with this we have to be empathy that it is hard on the patient side that he cannot move easily hence he/she needs some assistance to get move. Mobility is very important in doing our daily living, unable to move may add some serious problem like bed sores, spinal injury, inflammatory disease. Daily exercise greatly demands on our body to be physically fit and active. With those condition this can affect on individuals lifestyles and social activities. Eliminating , since we are eating and drinking we need also to excrete some waste products in our body. Sleep help as to be relax and get out of stress. It helps to grow and repair the cells.     Assess pain by using the pain scale, 0- 10 as 0 with no pain and 10 as the rating for very painful.             Three important needs of the patient PERSONAL CLEANSING AND DRESSING. In dealing with patient being amputated we as the health care  provider must provide a cleanliness on the patient’s body especially on the wounds. since talking about amputation and that the skin is not intact and its open to environment we need to monitor on its skin. We need to teach also the client on how to care and handle  his wounds and to maintain its skin integrity. Keeping the bandages or plaster in a dry , a wet or moist bandages may have some bacteria, moist is a good source of bacteria. So to prevent further complication in order not to get infected, we must learn to clean the wounds and know how to do proper dressing. I can say that it is one of the important needs of the patient knowing that we are preventing further complications. After surgery we are checking if there are some complications that might have to the patient like checking his vital signs especially the temperature, for example we get confused why he has a fever even though we can’t find any reason but the point is that his wound are being infected and was not properly cleaned and dressed. As a nurse we must do the sterile way in cleaning the wound with sterile gloves and correct way of putting the medication into the patient’s skin. Patient need to learn to clean his wound not just the patient but the relatives as well. EATING AND DRINKING. Vitamins and minerals are from the food we eat like fruits and vegetables. It is one great factor in helping the patient to be more alive and active. We became healthy through the food we eat, our body really needs some food, and liquids to help the body more function. Especially the vitamin A.D.E.K for the skin integrity and for the bones. Drinking helps the body to eliminate waste products which are harmful in the body. It is the food that we eat that initiate energy to perform our activities in daily living. Water in the body is really important , if the skin wound gets  dry in which the body lacks water, it add minor problem to the case.  MOBILIZING. I choose this as one of the important needs of the patient because mobilization is very important aspect. Gradual movement or passive exercises may have to perform this case, the post operation total knee amputation really need this. It doesn’t mean that we teach the patient to walk of course the patient cannot walk  but we think of the remaining parts on the body. Applying passive motion of exercise to have the blood circulate. Elevating the lower part I every 2 hours or as doctors required, turn to sides every hours or as desired. With the help of the therapist they are also aware on the mechanics of the body parts, but nurses have to do with the patients by assisting him to move. Providing trapeze for the patient to hold on, in case that he likes to move. Discussion on the medications Pain Reliever- since the case of knee amputation is really painful and other major surgery it really needs a pain reliever to get relieve the pain. Pain reliever work on the body to manage the moderate, severely acute and chronic pain, it inhibit the cyclooxygenase, which decreases the prostaglandin production resulting to reduce pain. The patient need to take a pain reliever hence, after the surgery in an hours ago the anesthesia wear off and since it is amputation it is really in great demand to take pain reliever, it is very painful on the patients part. Antibiotic- this medication is really needed to discourage infection. In cleaning the wound the nurse must observe proper way of cleaning it or observe sterility. The stump must remove and changed, in order to facilitate the flow of the blood there should a good blood circulation. Infection is really the concerns of the amputees, if the stump gets infected it may lead to a worse thing, thus necessary to remove the prosthesis and maybe it may lead to second time amputation at a higher level. This medication act as killing the bacteria in the area thus or preventing any problems. Antibiotics may come in a topical preparation, or in a tablet form or parenteral form.   Summary of the discussion Based on the chosen problem, total knee amputation is not a simple problem but it is a serious problem. It should be treated very well and have to take care very well, patient also need to counsel since their body parts have been lost or being removed and that they may think they will not have will to survive, mostly these patients have a low self esteem so encourage verbalization in order to know the side of the patient and let go of the worries. With this problem I come up to choose  the Roper-Logan-Tierney model of nursing because it is mostly used by the student nurses, the approach were good enough to support the needs of the amputees. It has a great impact on a student nurses profession since we are dealing with different patients, we get rotated to the different settings in a hospital, total knee amputation is seen mostly in the hospital. Since this case is very common we must be knowledgeable enough if ever we handle this certain kind of case.                             Reference: Baly, M 1995, Nursing and social change, 3rd ed., Routledge, London Roper,  N et al, 1996,The elements of nursing, Churchill Livingstone, Edinburgh.   Credit:ivythesis.typepad.com

Juicy Red Tomato Company

This chapter discusses about how many people are being affected with this condition, framework of the acute needs of the patients, and...

WHY WOMEN EXERCISE

WHY WOMEN EXERCISE   Introduction               It is believed that exercising is an important aspect needed by an individual for body structure and vital organs.  Exercise which is done properly and consistent can help one control weight, and also promote over all good health.  There are two types of exercises that benefit an individual: aerobic exercise and strength exercise.  Aerobic exercise is a helps improve cardio vascular and cardio respiratory functions. It is also a good way to loose fat, and keep a lean body while strength exercise helps build muscle and lose body fat.  In addition, it helps improve strength, balance and flexibility in joints.               Aside from the physical and health related benefits that exercise can give; there are other reasons why there are people who spend more time in exercising specifically women. Hence, the goal of this paper is to determine the reasons why women exercise.   Women and Exercise               There are many reasons that can be considered on why women exercise. One of the important reasons is for their physical and mental enhancement. It is said that exercise helps the body as well as the brain.  Through exercise, women are able to maintain their body figure.  Most women exercise to achieve the so-called ideal feminine body.     According to feminist cultural studies, exercise can be a very powerful means for women to challenge themselves, attain a sense of identity and determine their physical capabilities (1993).  On the other hand, exercise can be suppressive as women used this as a way of achieving the ideal feminie body.  According to  (1995), ideal feminine body is described as a series of contradictions or opposition: “firm but shapely, strong but thin, fit but sexy.               In the Western societies, women often try to sculpt their bodies to gain such feminine standard or criterion ( 1998).  To achieve this, sometimes women do it in unhealthy ways (1994); however, these ways could not guarantee that women will really achieve such ideal feminine body. Hence, their last option is still through proper diet and exercise ( 1995).               Women always say that the main reason why they exercise is to lose weight and tone their muscles to improve their body shape and to enhance their attractiveness and appearance (1992).  Accordingly, women concentrate more on the beauty benefits of exercise that the healthy sides (2000).  Moreover, women who exercise more also stressed the value of avoiding too much muscularity, which is regarded as masculine and unappealing (1998).  Such toned but not too muscular shape of the body is described as the double body image ( 1995), which empowered and at the same time oppressed exercises.               Those women who do aerobics aims to challenge the conventional ideal beauty by toning their muscles and engaging in oppressive feminine activities like dieting ( 1995).  Hence, there is a tendency that women may gain some of the physical and mental advantages of exercise. Nevertheless, the ideal female body still limits them as they could not become too muscular and they may use unhealthy ways to attain such ideal.  As women tries to achieve cultural ideal female body, and have an attractive body figure, women examine their bodies to see if there are flaws (). Women who are really conscious are quick to identify different flaws on their body.  These include bulging belly, fat thighs and flabby triceps.             Study shows that an essential aspect of aerobic exercise was spot toning of specific body parts including butt, stomach and thighs.  In that sense, the popular media, specifically women’s magazines identifies such areas as problems and give easy-to do exercises for those spots that will reshape and enhance the body which promise a healthier and more appealing body (1994).                Contemporary women are now conscious on the body figure that they try to monitor their body shapes, find ways to achieve ideal body shape and bale them when they do not achieve such ideal figure (1994). Moreover, many believe that in order to fell good about them, an individual need to look good. This is done by taking good care of one self by being health and beautiful.               Different success stories which can be read in different journals or magazines for women, connects losing weight, toning muscles, proper dies and enhanced exercise helps women to solved personal dilemma and improve their perspectives for life. Another perceived reason why women exercise is in line with the emotional aspect.  It has been said that exercising has a positive effect on individual’s emotional aspect (1988).  Particularly, there are major benefits that can be achieved in exercising: increased self-esteem, well-being and motivation. It is noted that exercising is an essential factor for the development of status of an individual (1998).              In the study conducted by  (2000), they found out that exercising affects an individual’s well being, physical competence and self-esteem.  Self-esteem is considered as a critical component of any activities purposing at self-improvement like exercise. It is the appreciation of your own value, worth and importance and include accountability to oneself as well as consideration of other with whom a person interacts.   Different studies show that the greater levels of self-esteem is connected to increasing physical activities like exercise ( 2000). It is noted that women who are obese or do not have the so-called ideal female body have low self-esteem because they think that others view them as unappealing and unattractive.  On the contrary women with ideal female body have more self-confidence and high self-esteem. Through proper exercise obese women may achieve such ideal female body and eventually develop a high self-esteem and confidence.   Exercise not only affects the level of self-esteem among women but it also affects other emotional components.  There are studies that show how exercise has improved the mood of an individual, reduce anxieties among women, enhance the ability to handle stress and enhance sleep patterns. Throughout the years, different studies have been conducted to see the connection between exercise and self-esteem.               A research conducted at the  in Boston has investigated the effect of exercise on overweight women.  Accordingly, obesity can contribute to low self-esteem which is one characteristic of depressions.  In this study, eight women who are overweight are enrolled in an exercise program. At the end of the six-month program, only one of the eight respondents remains to be depressed and the majority have been able to cope with such depression. Thus, exercise really helps women to achieve high self-esteem.                         In young women, it is noted that through exercising the level of their self-esteem and body satisfaction have been enhanced ( & 2000), The reasons is that many women see exercise as a way of speeding up the weight loss process and acquire its primary strategy for altering the shape of their body ( 2002).               Moreover, aside from the reason for improved self-esteem another reason why women exercise is because of the notion of self-objectification. Objectification theory means that it a Western society, people tends to sexually objectify the female body.  In this manner, women experience objectification or center of attraction through constant evaluation usually done by male and the entertainment as well as advertising media.  This connotes that women should be valued not for who they are but for what they look like. In particular, those women with a thin beauty ideal constantly received glorification and other women tend to believe that in order for them to be valued as well, they must have such ideal body or look.               Furthermore, the theory also implies that the continuous exposure to the socio-cultural premise that women should be judged by how they look leads female to perceived other’s views of them. Such process is called self-objectification ( 1997).  Self-objectification means that a person comes to perceived that they are indeed the object to be looked at and evaluated.  With this, more women have become conscious on the way they present themselves especially their physical appearance and body figure.   Because of the notion of self-objectification many women especially those who are mostly affected by it tends to find ways to enhanced their body shape and exercising is one of it. It has been assesses that high self-objectification was linked with exercising for appearance-related reasons (2003). Hence, self-objectification can affect women to exercise and achieved a body which is ideal for many people.   Conclusion             It is recommended by health authorities that exercising is really good to improved once health.  However, because of different reasons, exercise is not only seen as a way of improving the health of an individual but also a means of having a quality living. In particular, women have been able to have different reasons why they engage in exercise program.  In this paper, there are three perceived reasons why women are exercising.  One is to improve their body figure and achieve the so-called ideal female body.  Women think that having a body that will be attractive and appealing is achievable by proper exercise.               Developing high self-esteem and well-being is another reason why women engaged in exercising.  For them, if one is confident about their looks and physical appearance, this will help them to develop self-esteem and enable them to interact positively with other. In addition, if one has a high self-esteem other emotional related problems such as depression, stress and others can also be handled by women easily. Lastly, the theory of self-objectification can be considered as another reason why women exercise.  Since women feels that they are always the object of evaluation, they are being conscious of their body shape and image resulting for them seek for ways in improving it. And through exercise, most women had been able to achieve their goal of having an ideal image. Credit:ivythesis.typepad.com

WHY WOMEN EXERCISE

WHY WOMEN EXERCISE Introduction It is believed that exercising is an important aspect needed by an individual for bod...

HOUSEHOLD LIFE CYCLE

HOUSEHOLD LIFE CYCLE             INTRODUCTION                 The family has always been regarded as the basic social institution.  It is the first venue for children to learn attitudes, values and behaviors that would help shape his or her future personality.  The critical function of the family gives emphasis on marriage.  The marital union of a man and a woman is the legal basis for starting a family.  One of the most common motivations of couples to engage in marriage is the idea of starting and raising their own family.  The traditional family structure composed of the married couple and the children has always been the ideal.                         Recent studies however, suggest the opposite.  According to  (1999) the face of the American family had changed as evidenced by the drop of the percentage of America households made up of married couples with children from 45% in the early 1970s to just 26% in 1998 (p. 1).  The decrease is attributed to many factors including postponement of marriage and child-bearing, high incidence of divorce, and the old generation who are contributing to childlessness and single-person households.  Many people today are engrossed with the past-paced modern lifestyle that marriage and family are seen as hindrance to living substantially and successfully.  Also, many Americans are seen as becoming more tolerant of divorce partly because many of them who are starting their own families may be products of divorce themselves                        ( 1999, p. 1).   The overall result is one and the same: the decline in the traditional family structure.     DRIVERS OF THE HOUSEHOLD LIFE CYCLE     Age               The average age of the household, and its relationship to the age of the individual, is shown to have some interesting and consistent properties which provide greater insight into the structure of households, particularly as an individual grows older.  When the average person is born, they join a household whose average age is about twenty.  Over the next twenty years of their life, their household grows by an average of ten years in age as younger members join the household and older members leave.  Over the next fifteen years, from age twenty to thirty five, the average person experiences a decrease in the average age of their household as they leave their familial home to create new households and then start adding new children to this household ( 2005, ).  The median age at home leaving according to  (2004) was youngest for the group of persons born in 1951-1956, at an average of 21.5 years for men and 19.9 years for women.  In 2001, 41.1 percent of persons aged 20-29 were living with their parents, compared to 27.5 percent in 1981.  Home leaving indicates other successful transitions to adult life, but living at home can also help young people to complete education, experiment with relationships and obtain employment. A critical event occurs at about age twenty eight, when people start to live in a household that is younger than themselves ( 2005, ).  By age 25-29, the majority of women and about two thirds of men are living in conjugal unions ( 2004).  From about age thirty five onwards, the average household age increases at slightly more than proportional rate as children grow up, leaving their parents by themselves.  Above the age of seventy the relationship begins to scatter as many different household structure emerge (the elderly, the widow or widower living alone, and the extended family where the parents move back in with their children).  It has also been found out that more females of all ages tend to live in single parent families, and that major differences between the genders appear in the later years of life.  Older males tend to remain in two-person household, while older females tend to be lone person households and single parent households ( 2005, ).                         Marriage and Children                  (n.d.) argued that families follow five stages over a lifetime: young singles, young married, parenthood (full nest), post-parenthood (empty nest), and dissolution.  The first stage is premised on the principle of accepting financial and emotional responsibility for oneself through differentiation of self in relation to family of origin, development of intimate peer relationships, and establishment of self in relation to work and financial independence.  Marriage, on the other hand, is the commitment to a new system where realignment of relationships with extended families and friends to include the spouse takes place ( 1999,  cited in  2006).  In most functional marriages, partners combine their beliefs and behaviors in a synergetic way.  Synergy in the family life cycle is the ability to take two different points of view and create an option that neither person had considered.  Some of the issues in this stage include the transition into the new family system, including the spouse in personal relationships established in singlehood, commitment to making the marriage work, and putting the needs of the partner ahead of own needs ( 2005a).                         The entry of children in the system entails the married couple to provide some space for them and to support each other in child rearing, and financial and household tasks ( 1999,  cited in  2006).  The decision to have children affects the individual development of the man and the woman, the identity of the family and the entire marital relationship.  This stage tests the ability of the couple to communicate well in order to resolve issues and maintain a healthy relationship ( 2005b). There is also realignment of relationships with extended family to accommodate parenting and grandparenting roles.  Furthermore, when children grow up, the family is expected to increase flexibility in its boundaries to include children’s independence and grandparents’ frailties.  The couple needs to shift their focus to the mid-life marital and career issues facing them as well as to leniency to the children to explore outside the family system.  This is also the time for realignment of relationships to include in-laws and grandchildren, and dealing with disabilities and death of grandparents.  The last stage is characterized by the age of physiological decline, exploration of new familial and social role options, making room for the older generation, and preparation for own death.  This stage is the period of life review and integration ( 1999,  cited in  2006).     REGIONAL VARIATIONS AND TRENDS IN HOUSEHOLD LIFE CYCLE AND THEIR MARKETING IMPLICATIONS                    (2003) reported that immigration and family building of Generation Xers are both significant in the presence of traditional families.  Utah, Texas, California, New Jersey, Idaho and New Hampshire which all have growing immigrant populations registered a high percentage of the traditional married-with-children households.  Regions that registered the largest rates of growth in married-with-children households in the 1990s can be found in much of the West; California; the Southwest’s Texas; and the Southeastern states of Florida, Georgia and North Carolina. Metropolitan areas with the most growth in traditional families are located primarily in these same regions, led by Las Vegas, where married-with-children households increased by 75 percent during the 1990s.  Twenty one states on the other hand, registered declines in married-with-children households. They are largely located in the central part of the United States, including the Midwest and the Great Plains, as well as in some demographically stagnant parts of the South and New England ().  According to the Brookings Institution Center on Urban and Metropolitan Policy population growth rate is fastest in Western cities at 19 percent followed by Southern cities; and those cities with greater human capital and moderately high levels of immigrants had strong growth rates (cited in  2006).                        (n.d.) reported that household or family life cycle models are useful for marketing segmentation because they mark stages or transitions associated with distinctive trends in expenditure for goods and services.   The concept of family/household life cycle encompasses lifestyle, income and expenditure pattern differences brought about by family role traditions.   (1996) added that the household’s pattern of production, consumption, resource allocation and decision making are also determinants of economic behavior.  The six stages of family life cycle based on demographic data are: (1) young single people; (2) young couples with no children; (3) young couples with youngest child under six years; (4) couples with dependent children; (5) older couples with no children at home; and (6) older single people.  Each stage has its characteristic purchasing patterns and financial circumstances (p. 1).               The approach to studying consumption patterns in many developed western countries is divided into two aspects.  First, consumers are classified into four life cycles groups namely: dependent adults or single adults; pre-family or married adults without children; family with one or more children; and adults whose children have left home.  These four groups are then broken down further by a combination of occupation and/or income to produce twelve major SAGACITY groupings which is a powerful discriminator between consumer groups for a wide range of products and services ( n.d.).  Family life, as it progresses from the time of marriage to having children, to letting children marry and have a family of their own, to being grandparents, entails several financial issues and planning.  Each stage brings with it new needs, new responsibilities and new trends in the market.  The early earning stage or the post-college years as stated by  (2006) are spent mostly on paying off college loans while learning how to handle cash flow issues and budgeting.  Those who have children are inclined to invest in college funds as well as retirement savings.  The established earning stage (35 to 55 years old) is characterized by emphasis on college education of the children and most financial issues are centered on it.  The pre-retirement phase is the appropriate time for discerning on legacy planning and positioning assets more conservatively.  Lastly, the retirement phase places high importance on life insurance and philanthropic spending to leave a legacy.                (2000) cited that families in the later stages of the family life cycle manifested greater similarities between the preferences of husbands and wives.  Young people consumed less energy (except for gasoline), middle aged families with children consumed the most energy, and gasoline usage had inverse relation with the presence of children.  “Second families” represent different consumption processes as having a young child increases the probability of greater material wealth to provide sufficient conditions for raising the child ().   and  (1990) further narrated that the consumer factor reveals that people in older life cycle stages read more than people in younger life cycle stages, who are more brand conscious.  Younger adults and single parents make decisions on their own and younger families consult their spouses in decision making.  Reasons for purchases show that single parents do not own the product, older families are replacing, and retirees want new product characteristics.                The Brookings Institution Center on Urban and Metropolitan Policy concluded that considering the regional variations in household life cycle and the unique consumerism in each life cycle stage, the future of cities and suburbs depends on their being desirable places for consumers to live and there is a need to figure out what people are looking for and provide appropriate choices and opportunities (cited in  2006)                                           REFERENCES     Credit:ivythesis.typepad.com

HOUSEHOLD LIFE CYCLE

HOUSEHOLD LIFE CYCLE INTRODUCTION The family has always been regarded as the basic social institution. ...

Caseload Midwifery: A Critical Review 10 Years on From Changing Childbirth

Caseload Midwifery: A Critical Review 10 Years on From Changing Childbirth

Corruption in the Public Sector of Ghana

Corruption in the public sector of Ghana             Corruption has become day-to-day issue as years went by. The public blamed this rotten system in the government for the poverty that it experiences for centuries. It had not been invented, it had not been discovered, but it was made by those who are living with greed. People say that once you are in the position where you got the control for the power, it is so hard for you to stop from creating a bridge that would connect you from wealth to your own treasure box.             That is an awful excuse for those who are in the position. They are so greedy that they have been blinded by the things that they are controlling at the time. They haven’t seen the people who are already in cliff of starvation and dying because of poverty. While, the privileged ones remain in the position and are drowning themselves with the treasures that they had stolen from the public.             This is not a secret to everyone anymore. Corruption starts in the littlest ways that we do not know. When we were a kid, corruption exists. When our parents ask us to buy something from the store, we keep the change without telling them that there still is some money left. Therefore, corruption starts in that very early stage. And, without proper discipline, that continues in a very severe manner.             Ghana is well-off in terms of natural resources and its education system. Having gold, timber, industrial diamonds, bauxite, manganese, fish, rubber, hydropower, petroleum, silver, salt, and limestone all in one country is indeed a blessing. But despite being rich in natural resources, and gifted with a good education system and well-organized civil service, Ghana is a country which is a victim to corruption and mismanagement soon after it’s achieved its independence in 1957 (BBC, 2011). It has been a model country in Africa for its political and economical reform. But some leaders have been deposed from their position due to corruption.             Until the mid 1990’s, corruption was generally regarded as a criminal offense. But, the international development community could not be hands-on in corruption since it has gone endemic, and it could not link with partner countries given the norm that confronting corruption was a matter of municipal law and was therefore, outside the jurisdiction of international development agencies. Currently however, there is already a change regarding the outlook towards corruption and its control. Transparency International (TI) led the reorganization with a strategy of increasing awareness of the public about tackling corruption. It has been presented to the public as a developmental issue and TI also suggested that a partnership of different sectors of the society is of a great help. Alongside, The World Bank Group (The Bank) enhanced the TI approach with the concept of Action Planning where there is a prioritized array of strategic reform options sequenced to mainstream anti-corruption measures throughout a country’s governance system (Asamoa, 2003). Consequently, the scope for the fight against corruption has widened that it is already backed by the large sectors of the society.             But, that concept just remained as an plan, and it was never put into action. There is always a lack of cooperation and participation from the large sectors of the society that want to help in the fight against corruption. Or, should we say that corruption had already grown up into the bones of the society that it is very much difficult to remove? Yes, it is. Whether it is in Ghana or any other country (especially in the third world countries), corruption is like an endemic disease that is so hard to eradicate. Someday, it may seem to have been healed but, all the scars are never gone. The remains of the crime of corruption will always remain in the heart of the society.             Of all the countries, we should have noticed that those which are in the bottom level in terms of economics are the countries which are also suffering from the disease of corruption. These two are always going side by side, where there is corruption lies poverty. Which started which? Did corruption start poverty or did poverty start corruption? In the case of Ghana, it is somehow easier to determine. Ghana had been under the British colony for several years until 1957. The Europeans came in Ghana first, to trade gold and in the latter period, to trade slaves. It was such a misfortune and bad experience for the people of Ghana. That experience may have caused them not to believe in the leaders, and for the leaders to think that “yes, it’s my turn this time…we had suffered a lot, now is our turn to get what we were supposed to be having for a long time.” Ghana is endowed with a lot of natural resources and it had been a way for the colonists to get interested in conquering their land, and even its people. Ghana had never become poor with the resources but, the people are. So, its corruption which made the less fortunate ones in that country suffer. They suffer because they don’t possess the power that the leaders have. The blessings that their country offers don’t reach the oppressed. Stroke of luck is blocked only up to the upper class of the society. When will a piece of good fortune shower the ones in the lower portion of the society? Maybe it’ll happen when corruption ends. When will it end? Certainly, it’s when the people got to choose the competent and sincere leaders. To when will that happen? Let time be the judge and the stroke of fate. The fight against corruption is not a fight of an individual, it is but a fight of an entire nation which seeks for a change.   References: BBC, 2011. Ghana country profile. BBC News, [online] last updated 19 April 2011. Available at: <http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/country_profiles/1023355.stm>. [Accessed 04 June 2011] CIA, 2011. The World Factbook. [online] last updated 26 May 2011. Available at: <https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/gh.html>[Accessed 04 June 2011] Asamoa, Y. B., 2003. National Strategies for Combating Corruption; The Ghana Experience. [pdf] Available at: < http://www.u4.no/helpdesk/helpdesk/queries/queryattach/q42NatStratGhanaExperience.pdf>.[Accessed 04 June 2011] Credit:ivythesis.typepad.com

Corruption in the Public Sector of Ghana

Corruption in the public sector of Ghana Corruption has become day-to-day issue as years went by. The public blamed this ...

Networking- Networking Adapter Card

Networking- Networking Adapter Card               Networking can group several computers together. But there are advantages and disadvantages to networking. Advantages of networking in general are: ·         Expensive resources such as printers and storage devices can be shared ·         A user can use load and edit files that they have created on any station, provided that the station has the software required to use the files or share files ·         You can use a network to send electronic mail or to access huge databases such as the World Wide Web or a database of all the products a company sells by sharing internet access ·         Share hardware devices among multiple computers Also, there are disadvantages that networking offer, these are: ·         The cabling, interface cards, file servers, etc. that are required to set a network are expensive ·         If one computer, cable or interface breaks the whole network may stop operating and you may not be able to use any of the computers until the fault is repaired. In practice this rarely happens. The exact effect of a failure will depend on the topology of the network. ·         Viruses stored on a computer on a network can spread to other computers over the network ·         The files stored on computer networks can be accessed, stolen and edited more easily that files stored on a non-networked computer could be. Appropriate security measures must be implemented to prevent this. The advantages and disadvantages stated apply for the user and organisation. For a user, sharing of files and viruses are what makes networking unattractive. Since for every user, somehow there are files that they do not want others to see. But if they are in a network it cannot be helped. For an organisation, the advantages are most certainly welcome, although there are a few drawbacks, the over-all view for the network is positive. The drawbacks can be addressed separately should it occur. And even if organisation files can be stolen, this can also be addressed by setting up firewalls and other security measures. Network topology refers to the layout used to wire the computers together. Regardless of what type of network is used, any topology can be applied. In bus topology, computers are connected to a single cable that connects all computers, this type of topology is the cheapest of all as it requires the smallest amount of cabling, but if the cable breaks anywhere then none of the computers can access the network. In a mesh topology, any computer can be connected to any other computer, and this topology is very reliable because if one link fails the messages will be directed to another link, and example of this topology is the Internet. The star topology offers communication to all other computers via a central computer, and if one cable breaks only the computer connected to that computer will be affected, but if the central computer fails the whole network will break down. For the ring topology, each computer if connected to two computers that are adjacent to it, and the last computer is linked to the first so that it forms a ring, but if one cable breaks then none of the computers can gain access to the network. The choice of network adapter depends on network architecture. But there a lots of types of adapters. For a network that has units close to 100, it is best to use the star topology for the network. Because in this type of topology, the organisation will only maintain the central computer that connects every computer together, and this way they can closely monitor the security of their network. Plus the adapter used for this type of topology or network architecture costs about to 0 per adapter only, as compared to other adapters whose price range reaches up to 00 per adapter. In choosing the network adapter, the organisation has to consider the advantages and disadvantages of each type of topology as was discussed above. If the organisation is only going to network four computers, it is advisable to do what they initially plan to do. But if they are going to add more computers to the network, it may cause trouble. This is because if more than one unit will print at the same time, it may take a much longer time than if there are fewer computers on a network to share a single printer. Another type of network that can be used is the mesh topology. As was said, this type of topology is reliable in such a way that it redirects an operation if the link is not available. But if this is to be used for a printer sharing, it may not also be advisable. If the organisation really needs to network computers to share a single printer, this should be done for computers that are close, that way the users will know if there are any printing jobs pending before they try to print. Or the organisation can provide two printers to a network. This way, if one of the printers is not available the other printer can be used. This suggestions may not be as economical as what was initially planned, but this type is much more efficient and easier to maintain.   Reference:   Netgear. (2003). “Easy guide to choosing a network card.” Santa Clara, California: Headquarters Netgear, Inc.   Meakin, P. (1999). “Networks: Advantages and Disadvantages.” Cheshire, Washington: Cedar Education.   Meakin, P. (1999). “ Networks: Topology.” Cheshire, Washington: Cedar Education.     Credit:ivythesis.typepad.com

Networking- Networking Adapter Card

Networking- Networking Adapter Card Networking can group several computers together. But there are advantages and disadvan...

THE IMPACT OF BACKREST ELEVATION ON THE DEVELOPMENT OF VENTILATOR ASSOCIATED PNEUMONIA

THE IMPACT OF BACKREST ELEVATION ON THE DEVELOPMENT OF VENTILATOR ASSOCIATED PNEUMONIA         According to the US American Journal of Critical Care Pneumonia is due to noscomial infection and another leading cause of death in the United States and other countries. The inflammation of one or both lungs due to this virus irritates the respiratory tract that promotes bacterial spread and may induce mucus secretion release constantly in our body. Medical experts have found a need to experiment for the cure of such infectious and deadly disease that is why the development of backrest elevation of the Ventilator Associated Pneumonia has been introduced. The person who suffered this critical level of the disease may require the use of mechanical ventilation or a breathing machine within 48 hours because they may suffer breathing seriously and may cause death if not been treated in time. The death rate of this disease of Ventilator Associated Pneumonia is critically high and it required immediate treatment upon diagnosis.       The Center for Disease Control and Prevention have recommended the use of Backrest Elevation to a 30 degree during the first 24 hours to 45 degree during the next few hours to this angle so that the Ventilator Associated Pneumonia could reduce the risk  or be slightly prevented. Ventilator Associated Pneumonia may still be developed in people of serious condition if the backrest elevation is less than 30 degree during the first few hours and the development of VAP may still arise during 24 hours. Therefore positioning the patient is the key component of nursing aide to protect them. The elevation of the head gradually reducing the patient must have been the key where there is no medical contradiction this has been the chosen position.       From this point of view there are still negative implication of the position on the part of the patient since the complication of the 30 degree to 45 degree may affect the risk pressure and may form ulcer formation due to prolong position and that patient may slide down from the machine eventually due to their body weights especially from the elderly and bed ridden patients. To prevent this from happening there should be a continual monitoring of backrest elevation educating the nurse and immediate family and patient to maintain their position.       Study shows that it is a misconception that the critically ill patient should lay down on a supine position (lying on the back with face upward position) this position may create a major impact on the condition of the patient to highlight the risk of backrest and basically complication may occur. These findings have largely contributed to the Development of Backrest Elevation of Ventilator Associated Pneumonia.       In a recent study conducted in the medical respiratory in Virginia Commonwealth University Health System Intensive Care Unit (ICU). This room can accommodate at least 1000 patient each year because of its large capacity of 12 beds where half of them may require mechanical ventilation where included in the study excluding the patients using the intubation (inserting a tube through the vocal chords into the windpipe to provide oxygen into the lungs) where intubation would increase the risk of VAP, this reduce the patients to 276 to be studied that is sufficient enough that will indicate the efficiency of backrest elevation in the development of Ventilator Associated Pneumonia. Data development record has been critically measured in a comprehensive and accurate manner during admission of patient until a week of study. They have also developed a transducer measuring system to measure the elevation consequently for accurate recording over time and continuous data recording has been done every 10 minutes. Other data that is related to the VAP risk were also included to support the study. During the day of study period the patient is consistently in backrest elevation position. Initially they have gathered volume of data that results in the creation of formula to simplify the figures and expert has been very happy about the outcome.       The study has been reviewed and approved by the University Board and suggestions have been implemented to obtain the backrest elevation system and this has been the result of the study to prove the impact of backrest elevation. No direct association of backrest elevation and ventilator associated pneumonia was found. And the previous conclusion that Ventilator Associated Pneumonia was more likely to develop in patient suffering from serious ailment that spend more time at backrest elevation of less than 30 degree during the first day of intubation.  (American Journal of Critical Care 2005)                   Credit:ivythesis.typepad.com

THE IMPACT OF BACKREST ELEVATION ON THE DEVELOPMENT OF VENTILATOR ASSOCIATED PNEUMONIA

THE IMPACT OF BACKREST ELEVATION ON THE DEVELOPMENT OF VENTILATOR ASSOCIATED PNEUMONIA According to the US American Journal of C...

Actual Case Studies – Sexual Offenses

Actual Case Studies – Sexual Offenses             All the cases involved allegations of the crime of rape. To prove the crime, five elements need proof. First is penetration of the male sexual organ of the female sexual organ, regardless of the extent, but there are also jurisdictions that recognize penetration made by other body parts or objects. This makes rape traditionally gender specific or specific to women. Second is force by the perpetrator and resistance by the victim. Both are necessary to constitute evidence of rape since force and resistance reflects the lack of consent to the act. The force should be reasonable that average person would consider this a threat to their free will and the resistance by the victim should likewise be reasonably evident. The existence of resistance comprises a key consideration in investigations of rape. Third is non-consent or lack of consent, which means that the act is against the will of the victim, as opposed to consensual sex. In investigating this element, law enforcement officers consider a number of factors such as the relationship of the victim and suspect, the circumstances of the situation, the state of mind of the victim and suspect, and physical evidence. Fourth is marital exemption, which involves the consideration of the lack or existence of domestic relationship between the perpetrator and victim. However, many states have abolished this element to address the alleged bias against married women. Nevertheless, marital receives regard as less serious. Fifth is mens rea or mental state of the defendant. This means that the defendant should be aware of the lack of consent of the defendant and committed the act with knowledge or recognition of the act as reckless or criminal. (Bloch & Mcmunigal, 2005)             Based on these elements, a consideration of the cases independently shows that only Case Three, the complaint made by a woman of being raped in an alley while waiting for her bus. This was because her statement coincided with the statements of witnesses working at the bus station, medical and physical evidence also corroborated her story, and she positive identified the perpetrator. In the other cases, there was no physical evidence such as in Case One and Two. The other cases, Case Four and Five, some medical and physical evidence but the statements of the victim were uncorroborated or inconsistent. In Case Six, there were no other physical evidence in the crime scene but laboratory reports are still pending since the victim claimed being drugged. Case Seven does not contain detailed reports.             The case reports contained common elements including summary or brief of the subject of the investigation and the situation, the investigating officer, the steps taken upon receiving the call, statements of the victim and witnesses, evidence collected including medical reports and physical evidence, and the comments or conclusions to the report based on the opinion of the investigating officer (Bacigal, 2001). However, there were some cases lacking in some of these details such as medical or laboratory results, which could support the investigation even with inconsistencies in the statements of the victim or that of the victim with witnesses.             Initially, the first two cases appear to have involved false accusations of the suspect that appeared to be different person. However, by going through the rest of the cases collectively, a pattern appears, particularly rape as the crime reported and Richard Verduzco (also known as Ricky Verduzco or Rick). Although the cases involved separate incidents and unrelated victims, the pattern supports a change in impression towards the earlier cases appearing to be false accusations. There needs to be further investigation of the cases given the similar nature of the crime and the suspects identified by the victims. Seven cases of rape against a single suspect by assumed unrelated victims deserve further investigation.             Based on the consideration of the cases singly and collectively, the victim in Case Three and Case Six are telling the truth since evidence corroborated their statements but even in this case, there is yet a report on the processing of the rape kit and the victims dress. This means the rape happened but there is no other evidence pointing to Rick Verduzco as the suspect apart from the fact that both these women were with him during the reported rape incident. The evidence of rape and positive identification of Rick Veruduzco as the perpetrator could support criminal prosecution but waiting for the results of the laboratory tests would strengthen the case.                   It was only during the seventh case that a semblance of collaboration in the investigation occurred. A recommended protocol would be to run a report against a database of resolved cases as well as records of pending investigations. In case of similar criminal reports involving the same suspect, the investigation should be coordinated on the suspect. References Bacigal, R. J. (2001). Criminal law & procedure: An introduction (2nd ed.).  New York: West Legal Studies.   Bloch, K. E., & Mcmunigal, K. C. (2005). Criminal law a contemporary approach: Cases, statutes, and problems. New York: Aspen Publishers.     Credit:ivythesis.typepad.com

Actual Case Studies – Sexual Offenses

Actual Case Studies – Sexual Offenses All the cases involved allegations of the crime of rape. To prove the crime, five eleme...